Forensic Science Textbook for Universities. Part 1. Read online.

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Forensics

Consists of sections: Theoretical and methodological foundations of forensic science, Forensic technology, Forensic tactics, Forensic investigation methods.

CHAPTER 1 FORENSIC SCIENCE AS A FIELD OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE

N 1. Concept, object, subject of forensic science

N 2. Functions, sources, laws of development, methods of forensic science.

N 3. The system of forensic science

N 4. Forensic science in the system of sciences

N 5. History of the development of domestic forensic science

N 6. Forensic science in foreign countries

CHAPTER II FORENSIC CHARACTERISTICS OF PRELIMINARY CHECKS AND INVESTIGATIONS

N 1. Concept, relationship, structure of preliminary checks and investigations

N 2. Principles of preliminary checks and investigations

N 3. Types of activities carried out during preliminary checks and investigations

CHAPTER III THE DOCTRINE OF FORENSIC CHARACTERISTICS OF CRIMES

N 1. The concept, types and meaning of forensic characteristics of crimes

N 2. Forensic characteristics of individual elements of crimes

CHAPTER IV FORENSIC DOCTRINE OF THE INVESTIGATIVE SITUATION

N 1. The concept and content of the investigative situation

N 2. Classification and Typification of Investigative Situations

CHAPTER V THEORY OF FORENSIC MODEL AND FORENSIC MODELING. VERSION.

N 1. Concept, Features, Types of Forensic Model and Forensic Modeling

N 2. Forensic Version

CHAPTER VI FORENSIC THEORY OF TACTICAL OPERATION

N 1. General Provisions of the Doctrine of Tactical Operations

N 2. Concept and Classification of Tactical Operations

N 3. Structure of Tactical Operations

CHAPTER VII THEORY OF FORENSIC IDENTIFICATION

N 1. Concept, Scientific Foundations and Types of Forensic Identification

N 2. Objects of Forensic Identification

N 3. Concept and classification of identification features

The conclusion about the identity of an object is always based on the totality of its identification features. Inaccuracies and miscalculations in determining these features, inclusion in the set of features of such features of the object that cannot fulfill their role, inevitably lead to errors in expert conclusions, and they, in turn, can give rise to unjust sentences and decisions. An identification feature is a property of an object that satisfies certain requirements. Each object can be distinguished from a set of similar objects by the totality of its inherent properties. For this, any properties of the object can be used: features of the external structure and internal structure, its physical and chemical properties, biological, anatomical and physiological features, etc. However, each of these properties can be used for identification purposes and fulfill the role of an identification feature only if it meets certain criteria.

In order to become an identification feature, the property of the identified object must be reflected in the identifying object, since with the help of this object the identity of the sought-after is established.
Only those properties of the object that are characterized by specificity can perform the function of an identification feature. The more unique the property, the higher its identification significance.
An important characteristic of an identification feature is its relative stability. If a property of an object is not stable, it cannot be used as an identification feature and participate in the identification process. The criterion for the relative stability of a property can be its insignificant variability in time and within the identification period, the regular repeatability of its displays on the identifying object, and stable manifestations of the property in various conditions.
The criterion for selecting features that form the expert's identification conclusion is the mutual independence (relative autonomy) of the object's properties. It is known that the properties (identification features) of an object can be dependent on each other and the degree of this dependence can be different. Sometimes the appearance of one feature inevitably causes the appearance of another. Such features with a high correlation coefficient (interdependence) are unsuitable for the identification process. If the expert discovers such an interdependence of several features, then only one of them is included in the identified set to substantiate the expert conclusion. The rest are not taken into account as they do not have independent identification value. If the correlation coefficient is small, the mutual dependence of the features is small, then all features will be included in the identified set, and the identification value of their set is determined taking into account the correlation coefficient. The interdependence of identification features can be explicit and hidden. Only specialists can detect and study hidden correlation.
An important characteristic of an identification feature is its frequency of occurrence in similar objects, and, consequently, its identification significance: the less frequently a feature occurs, the higher its identification significance. The frequency of occurrence and identification significance of features in various types of identification studies are currently determined using mathematical statistics and probability theory. Mathematical interpretation of identification features is one of the promising areas of searching for objective criteria for assessing the minimum unique set of features sufficient for a categorical conclusion about identity.
Any property of an object can be used as an identification feature, provided that it is accessible to modern methods of cognition. The development of science convincingly shows that as its boundaries expand, new properties are discovered and new reliable methods of identification are created. Identification features can be divided into general and specific. A general identification feature expresses a particular property inherent in a certain classification group; it is an indicator of a group characteristic of objects (for example, the type of papillary pattern, the caliber of a pistol, etc.). General features are also quite rightly called group or classification features. Certain features of an object that are not an expression of its group properties are usually called specific identification features. These include, for example, features of the microrelief of the rifling fields of a pistol barrel, «eyes», «islands», «bridges». and other features of the papillary pattern, various defects of the typewriter font, features of the structure of written signs and their elements in the manuscript.

N 4. General methodology of expert identification research

The general identification methodology assumes the construction of the study according to certain stages with strict adherence to their sequence. In the theory of forensic identification, four stages of identification expertise are distinguished.

Expert examination of objects submitted for examination. During the examination, the expert determines whether all materials listed in the resolution (ruling) on the appointment of an examination have been submitted to the expert, whether they have all been correctly drawn up procedurally and whether there are any doubts about their authenticity, whether they are sufficient and suitable for identification. If the materials are clearly insufficient or unsuitable for identification, the expert informs the investigator (court) about this and indicates what additional materials need to be submitted. At this stage, the expert draws up a plan for the upcoming examination and determines the most effective working methods that will be used during the examination.
Separate study of the presented objects. At this stage, the main task of the expert is to identify the maximum number of identification features inherent in each object, to examine its entire identification field. When analyzing traces-displays of the identified object, for a correct assessment of the identification features, their coincidences and differences, it is necessary to understand the mechanism of formation of these traces. The identified features should be sufficiently fully recorded and clearly presented in photographs, tables or diagrams to facilitate the comparison of these features at the stage of comparative research and to give them a correct assessment.
Comparative study. At this stage, the expert compares the identical identification features of objects, identifies matching and different features (in any case, both in the presence and absence of identity, both matching and different features are detected). The comparative study must be complete and detailed. Not only the striking and most characteristic features are compared in detail, but also all the identification features identified at the stage of separate research, regardless of their number and degree of expression. Often, it is the comparison of small, barely noticeable features that allows the expert to make the correct conclusion about identity. Reliable comparison results are ensured by the skillful use of technical means and research methods. Various measuring devices, magnifying glasses, comparative microscopes, special lighting devices and other technical means can be used.
N 1. The concept of planning and organizing an investigation

Investigation of crimes, like the entire criminal process, is characterized by an organizational, planned beginning. Planning of an investigation is not limited to drawing up a plan, which is only an external expression of this process, the completion and, in most cases, written execution of a certain stage of planning. The content of planning is much broader and represents the organizational and creative side of the investigator's work, which begins from the beginning of the investigation and continues until its completion. It involves: a) developing versions; b) determining all the circumstances and issues subject to clarification arising from the analysis of versions; c) determining the investigative actions, operational-search and other verification and preventive measures necessary for the study of the put forward versions, clarification of the issues arising from them, establishment of the subject of proof in the case and solving other tasks of the investigation; d) determining the specific executors of the planned measures, the timing and sequence of their implementation. All elements of planning find their specific expression in the investigation plan for the case. Organizing an investigation is a broader concept than planning. Organizing an investigation is this means:

— develop an agreed investigation plan in advance;

— establish proper interaction during the investigation between the investigator, operational staff, specialists, employees of regulatory bodies and representatives of the public involved in the investigation;

— ensure qualified leadership of the investigative-operational group, if it is created to work on a criminal case:

— clearly distribute responsibilities between the members of the group:

— organize regular operational meetings of the investigative task force to discuss the results and next tasks of the investigation: — establish a systematic exchange of information between the members of the investigative task force;

— plan the investigator's work taking into account all criminal cases that are simultaneously in his/her proceedings, draw up a calendar plan for his/her work:

— ensure the investigator has the technical equipment and necessary working conditions;

— select and study the necessary regulatory material (relevant orders, instructions, charters, rules, etc.) that will be required during the investigation of the case;

— take measures to ensure that preliminary investigation data and operational investigative activity methods are not disclosed:

— carry out other organizational measures necessary for successful work on the case.

The set of organizational measures for a criminal case must be strictly defined, specific, and developed in all details. An important element of organizing an investigation is clearly established interaction between the investigator and operational-search units, forensic services, regulatory authorities, and the public. Combining investigative actions with operational-search measures is one of the important conditions for improving the quality of crime investigation. This requires close business contact in the work of the investigator and the operational-search unit. Establishing such contact is facilitated in cases where the investigation is conducted by investigators from the Ministry of Internal Affairs and the counterintelligence service, since there are no departmental barriers between their investigative and operational-search units, the investigators of these bodies themselves are familiar with the basics of operational-search activities and can, together with operational workers, develop detailed plans for operational-search measures for the criminal case under investigation.

The same clear interaction between investigators and operational workers must be ensured in cases where the investigation is carried out by investigators of the prosecutor's office. And in these cases it is necessary to specially assign an operational worker (or a group of workers, if the interests of the investigation of a complex criminal case require it), who would bear personal responsibility for solving the crime. With the team method of investigation, it is advisable to include in the investigative group the required number of operational workers who, together with the investigators, using specific methods of their activities, would direct joint coordinated efforts to successfully solve common problems. A truly businesslike contact in the work of the investigator and the operational worker, ensuring a successful combination of investigative actions and operational-search measures during the investigation of a crime, presupposes a clear delineation of the powers of the investigator and the operational worker. Their interaction is carried out in various forms: the departure of an investigator and an operative to the scene of the incident for joint work to identify and secure traces of the crime, search for and detain the criminal; joint participation in the development of an investigation plan for the case and plans for individual, most complex actions and operational-search measures; systematic mutual information on newly obtained data concerning the circumstances of the crime under investigation and the person who committed it.

The employees of the operational and forensic units assigned to participate in the investigation must actively use their specific means and methods for the complete and rapid disclosure of the crime, clearly and promptly carry out the investigator's instructions and directions on the performance of search and investigative actions. They are obliged to immediately notify the investigator and the prosecutor of the discovered crime in cases where the investigation is mandatory: take immediate measures to protect the scene of the incident, identify and secure material evidence, search for the criminal on the «hot trail» and carry out other urgent investigative actions and operational-search measures: provide scientific and technical assistance in identifying and recording traces of the crime; promptly inform the investigator of newly obtained operational-search data for use in the preparation and conduct of investigative actions on the case. The investigator, in turn, ensuring a combination of investigative actions and operational-search measures, must inform the relevant operational workers about the results of the implementation of the investigation plan, about newly obtained data during the investigation that can be used to organize the successful implementation of operational-search measures; promptly and in a specific form give operational workers instructions on carrying out the necessary measures to identify the suspect (accused), his connections, lifestyle, behavior at work and at home, identify eyewitnesses to the crime and other witnesses, etc.: invite operational workers to participate in the preparation and conduct of the detention or arrest of the accused (suspect), search and other measures associated with the risk of resistance by the offender, his escape or suicide and the destruction of material evidence: invite operational workers to participate in meetings of investigators conducting the investigation of the case, discussing the causes and conditions contributing to the commission of the crime, and preventive measures planned taking into account the investigation materials. The combination of investigative and operational-search measures contributes to the timely prevention of crimes in progress.

1) audit departments (divisions) of financial bodies (mainly in cases of theft of property, economic and official crimes, etc.);

2) State Trade Inspectorate (in cases of smuggling, illegal sale, transportation or shipment of narcotic substances, etc.);

4) bodies of Gosgortekhnadzor, Gosatomnadzor, Gosavianadzor, State Traffic Safety Inspectorate (in cases of emergency situations at industrial, agricultural, construction, transport facilities, etc.);

5) sanitary, sanitary-epidemiological and veterinary inspections, environmental and radiation control agencies:

6) assay supervision agencies (in cases of counterfeiting, theft of gold and precious metals, etc.);

7) other regulatory agencies of federal, republican and local subordination (bacteriological, hydrometeorological stations, etc.).

Control and audit departments (departments) of financial bodies may, by order of the investigator, conduct audits, inventories, checks of the financial and economic activities of enterprises and institutions, check the state of accounting and storage of inventory, raw materials and finished products, the legality of credit and monetary transactions, etc. Control and audit departments (departments) of financial bodies may, by order of the investigator, conduct audits, take stock of, and inspect the financial and economic activities of enterprises and institutions, check the state of accounting and storage of inventory items, raw materials and finished products, the legality of credit and monetary transactions, etc. Control and audit departments (departments) of financial bodies may, by order of the investigator, conduct audits, take stock of, and inspect the financial and economic activities of enterprises and institutions, check the state of accounting and storage of inventory items, raw materials and finished products, check the legality of credit and monetary transactions, etc. Control and audit departments (departments) of financial bodies may, by order of the investigator … Firstly, the formation of sovereign states on the territory of the former USSR necessitated coordination and interaction in the work of law enforcement agencies, including investigative agencies, of Russia and other states — former Soviet republics. This interaction should be carried out on a joint legal basis, contractual relations, provision of information and assistance in solving crimes using the capabilities of investigative agencies, operational-search and forensic services of the parties. Secondly, in 1990, our country became a member of the International Criminal Police Organization (Interpol), an opportunity arose to interact in the process of solving crimes at the international level. Interpol's capabilities can be used to search for and detain especially dangerous criminals, obtain the necessary documents and other evidence in criminal cases, extradite criminals, return vehicles and other property stolen abroad.

N 2. Principles of Investigation Planning

Investigation planning is based on the following guidelines and principles: individuality, dynamism, reality, concreteness and situationality. The individuality of investigation planning is an expression of the unique specificity of each criminal case.

Despite the similarities in the types of crimes, the presence of general provisions for the methodology of their investigation, the existence of typical tactical techniques and universal scientific and technical methods, the investigation of each crime is characterized by individuality, the uniqueness of the specific methods used.

In other words, just as the crime committed is unique in the totality of its features, so its investigation is unique in its specifics, and therefore the investigation planning for the case is also unique and individual. Despite the general typical structure of the investigation plan, a specific plan for a criminal case is always individual, and any attempt to neglect the principle of individuality, to replace a specific investigation plan with a certain template is fraught with negative consequences. The dynamism of investigation planning is a manifestation of the regularity of the development of the investigative version. As a dynamic information model, the investigative version goes through certain stages in its development, as already noted.

In the process of checking the ensuing consequences, new data on the facts appear, new assumptions arise about the circumstances of the crime being checked, some versions are discarded, others are born, and this happens before the end of the investigation, before the truth is established in the case. The natural dynamics of the investigation inevitably causes dynamics in planning, constant clarification and change of the investigation plan taking into account newly received information. Thus, even the most perfect, deep investigation plan that opens up prospects for the case is subject to constant adjustment. It does not at all follow from this that when drawing up the initial investigation plan, one can neglect the requirements of comprehensiveness and depth of analysis of the received materials, detailed development of versions, planned activities, etc., in the expectation that the plan is «unstable» and will still be changed and supplemented.

The principle of dynamic planning obliges the investigator to make timely additions and amendments to the investigation plan, taking into account newly received data and changes in the investigative situation. The reality of investigation planning is expressed primarily in the validity of the investigative versions put forward, the reality of the consequences logically deduced from them. Otherwise, the process of investigation planning will be divorced from the specific circumstances of the criminal case. Under these conditions, errors in determining the only correct direction of the investigation, the distraction of the investigator by useless activities, and the loss of the optimal pace of work on the criminal case are inevitable.

The reality of planning is also expressed in the practical feasibility of the planned activities, the possibility of meeting their deadlines. To replace the real with the desired, but unrealistic, to draw up a meaningful, «showy», but unrealistic plan — means dooming the investigation to failure.

The specificity of investigation planning means, firstly, setting clear, distinct goals and objectives of the investigation; secondly, a detailed analysis of the content of the versions put forward and the formulation of precise questions to be clarified; thirdly, the definition of specific activities. The investigation plan should not contain general, abstract instructions, for example, «identify the circumstances of the crime committed», «establish the guilt of the suspect», «interrogate a witness», «give instructions to the police», etc., as is sometimes observed in practice. The circumstances to be clarified must be specifically indicated in the plan, the witnesses must be named personally, the subject of the interrogation and the sequence of their summoning must be precisely defined, the instructions to the police must be targeted.

The situational nature of investigation planning assumes consideration of the specific investigative situation that has arisen by the time of planning. The investigative situation predetermines the specifics of developing the investigation plan for the case, influences the content of the investigative versions put forward, largely determines the necessary set of investigative actions and operational-search measures, as well as the totality of circumstances to be clarified and other components of the investigation plan. Taking into account changes in the investigative situation, the investigation plan for the case is adjusted and supplemented. The situational approach to planning is characteristic of all stages of the investigation. It is especially pronounced at its initial stage, when in a certain typical investigative situation it is possible to effectively use the typical investigation programs developed by forensic science, taking into account the individual characteristics of a specific criminal case. Some authors also include timeliness among the principles of investigation planning, warning, on the one hand, against «premature» and, on the other, against «belated» investigation planning. It should be borne in mind, however, that planning begins from the very first moment of the investigation, as soon as a report of a crime is received. From this moment, the investigator makes his first assumptions and outlines primary urgent actions. And in principle, it does not matter in what form the investigation plan is born at this moment — verbal or written, planning has already begun, and thus there is no reason to talk about its untimeliness or timeliness; we can talk about the timeliness of adjusting the planned plan, which is included in the concept of dynamic planning.

N 3. Investigation planning technique

The investigation plan can be oral or written. In investigative practice, the written form is most often used, as it is the most effective, not requiring the investigator to remember the content of the plan, the list of circumstances to be clarified, the activities, the deadlines and the order of their implementation. The investigator limits himself to an oral (mental) plan mainly at the beginning of the investigation, when he carries out urgent investigative actions at the scene of the incident and does not yet have the opportunity to draw up a written plan. At this point, he also cannot do without planning the investigation and must from the very beginning act according to a certain, albeit mental, but comprehensively thought out plan, otherwise his work on the case immediately becomes chaotic and, as a rule, ineffective. Having completed all the urgent activities, the investigator begins to draw up a written investigation plan. It reflects the investigative versions he has put forward, the questions (circumstances) to be clarified for each of them, the investigative actions and operational-search measures necessary to check the versions, the deadlines and the order of their implementation (see table).If the team method of investigation is used, the head of the investigative-operational group, with the participation of all its members, draws up a general plan of investigation for the case and, in addition, each investigator draws up his own, individual plan of investigation. The specific content of individual plans depends on how the responsibilities are distributed among the members of the group and what task each received. In practice, the distribution of responsibilities occurs in different ways. In some cases, the work of the group is built on versions, when each investigator checks one or several planned versions; in others — it is organized episodically, and each member of the group is assigned to investigate one or another episode or several interrelated episodes of the crime; thirdly,

— if the crimes were committed in several cities or regions, the members of the group are distributed among these regions, go to the sites and conduct the investigation. Sometimes it is advisable to assign certain investigative actions to one of the members of the investigative task force, for example, conducting searches, preparing all expert examinations, etc. In a group criminal case, it is often the practice to distribute the work of the investigative task force depending on the number of defendants. In this case, each investigator is assigned to investigate all the facts of criminal activity of one or another defendant involved in the case. The structure and content of individual investigation plans in all the above cases will be different. For example, with a regional and episodic principle of distributing the work of the investigative task force, individual plans will resemble a standard investigation plan and contain all its main requisites. If the investigator (or operative officer) is only tasked with preparing and conducting certain specific investigative (or operational-search) actions in a case, then, obviously, his individual investigation plan will be fragmentary, limited by the scope of the investigative action (or operational-search measure). In group and multi-episode criminal cases, along with the general and individual investigation plans, auxiliary planning tools are used: 1) a diagram of the structure of the criminal group; 2) a diagram of the criminal connections of accomplices; 3) diagrams of document flow, movement of inventory items, structure of the enterprise (organization), technological process of production (mainly in cases of official theft and criminal violations of labor protection rules); 4) cards on the accused indicating the episodes of the crime incriminated to each, the presence of evidence, etc .; 5) a list of connections of the accused; 6) a network schedule of the investigation; etc .

N 4. Planning of investigative action

General and individual plans of investigation of the case are always specified, supplemented by plans of investigative actions. They can also be oral and written, however preference should be given to the latter.

The plan of an investigative action must clearly define its purpose, conditions, place and time of implementation, content of preparatory activities, specific participants and their duties, tactical methods and technical means of implementation, methods of recording results. These general elements of the plan acquire their specific content depending on the type of investigative action and the specific features of the crime being investigated. For example, an interrogation plan and an investigative experiment plan will differ significantly from each other. In the interrogation plan, the emphasis is placed on the subject of the interrogation, the content (and sometimes the wording) of the questions being investigated, the order in which they are asked, identifying the relationship of the person being interrogated with other participants in the process, preventing slander, tactical methods for obtaining truthful testimony from the person being interrogated, and the use of evidence. The plan of an investigative experiment, along with the specific purpose of its implementation, reflects all the elements of its preparation: identification of the conditions of the event being verified, determination of the content, method, sequence, start and end time of experimental actions, the limits of their variation, determination of the limits of familiarization with the content of the upcoming experiment of each of its participants, their instructions, preparation of scientific and technical means, transport, communications, signaling and security means. The plan also specifies the specific conditions, place and time of the experiment, its participants and the specific functions of each of them, as well as the planned methods of recording the conditions, course and results of the investigative experiment. The content of the plans of investigative actions depends on other factors. For example, the plans for interrogating a confessing accused and an accused who denies his guilt are not the same in their content. Strict implementation of plans of investigative actions is the most important condition for the effectiveness of the entire investigation. Its success ultimately depends on how professionally the investigative actions aimed at detecting, recording and examining evidence, as well as operational-search activities, are planned.

CHAPTER IX GENERAL PROVISIONS OF FORENSIC TECHNOLOGY

N 1. Concept and classification of technical and forensic tools

Technical and forensic tools (TCS) are understood to mean equipment, tools, devices, impression materials and other materials, as well as methods and techniques used for the purpose of detecting, recording and studying carriers and sources of information, obtaining and using this information in criminal proceedings. The use of TCS is carried out taking into account a number of principles:
1. Independence of the investigator in making decisions on the use of forensic equipment (only in one case, when it comes to the rules for storing material evidence, the law obliges the investigator to photograph bulky objects).
2. Acceptability of using forensic equipment.
3. Preliminary notification by the investigator to all participants in the investigative action about the use of forensic equipment.
4. Mandatory procedural recording of the use of forensic technical means and the results obtained from their use. It follows from this principle that:
  a) each fact of the use of such means must be reflected in the protocol,
  b) it must contain a record that before the use of the TKS, all participants in the investigative action were notified of this;
  c) the protocol must indicate which TKS were used and the conditions for their use;
  d) the protocol must record the results obtained;
  d) the results of the use of the forensic equipment (photographs, negatives, casts, slides, films, interrogation recordings, plans, diagrams, etc.) are subject to inclusion in the protocol of the investigative action.
The classification of forensic equipment is carried out on various grounds:
1) source of origin;
2) subject of application;
3) purpose.

By origin, forensic equipment is divided into adapted, i.e. borrowed from other areas of technology (cameras, tape recorders, various microscopes, measuring instruments, etc.), and specially developed for forensic purposes (fingerprinting equipment, mobile forensic laboratories, etc.). By the subject of application, they are divided into means designed for use by an investigator or inquiry officer (investigative suitcase, camera, search devices, etc.), and technical means used by a specialist and forensic expert (various research equipment). According to the purposes of application, the following are distinguished:
1) means used for search purposes;
2) means of fixing and seizing objects;
3) means of examining objects:
4) technical and forensic trace-forming means.

For the investigator and the inquiry officer, the greatest interest is in the classification of technical and forensic means according to their intended purpose.

N 2. Search technical and forensic means

Various technical means, scientific methods and techniques are used to detect various material objects. The means of searching for invisible, barely visible and microscopic objects are designed to detect fingerprints, clothing fibres, dust, hair and other microparticles. Thus, fingerprints left on paper, glass, metal, wood and plastic products can be barely noticeable or completely invisible. A number of technical methods and means have been developed to detect them. For this purpose, a special forensic magnifying glass with illumination and powders of aluminum, graphite, soot, zinc oxide (designed for dusting with a sable brush), hydrogen-reduced iron (dusting is performed with a magnetic brush) are widely used. Recently, the luminescent powder «Quantum» has been used to detect sweat and grease stains on colored materials (paper money, lottery tickets, bonds and other securities). Iodine vapors are a good means of detecting fingerprints. To use them, law enforcement agencies are provided with a special set of devices «Kt», and starch paper has been developed to fix traces revealed with the help of iodine vapors (they quickly discolor).

N 3. Technical and forensic means of recording and seizing objects

As noted, there are two types of examination of discovered objects: preliminary and expert. A number of scientific methods and technical means have been developed for the successful conduct of preliminary examination. The method of preliminary examination of fingerprints allows determining the height, age, and characteristic features of the palm and fingers of the person who left the fingerprint. The method of preliminary examination of shoe prints, which helps determine the number of people who were at the scene of the incident, their gender, route of travel, gait characteristics, approximate height, and characteristic features of shoes and feet. The method of preliminary examination of burglary tool marks allows determining the type, kind, and variety of the tool or object used, the features of its working part (shape, size, dents, chips, etc.), signs of the obstacle with which the tool came into contact (peeling of paint or other substance), approximate height, build, professional skills, and physical characteristics of the person who committed the burglary. The method of preliminary examination of vehicle marks is designed to determine the type, brand, and model of the vehicle, the damage it has, the direction of travel, stop, and other circumstances. The information obtained by applying the listed methods is actively used in hot pursuit. Method of preliminary examination of traces of blood. Blood is a very common material evidence, but its search is associated with certain difficulties. Over time, blood changes its color from dark red, brown to dark gray, and when rotting, it acquires a greenish color. In addition, many substances are similar in appearance to blood (rust, dyes, juices, wine, ink, etc.). Therefore, suspicious stains found during inspection of the scene of the crime, examination, search, are often subject to preliminary examination. The forensic kit of the prosecutor's investigator for this purpose includes the following drugs: hydropyrite, Voskoboinikov's reagent, luminal. With their help, using the appropriate methods, the investigator can identify traces of blood. However, only a forensic medical examination can finally resolve this issue. The technical means used in the preliminary examination are:

— forensic magnifying glasses;

— rulers, tape measures, compasses, calipers and other instruments used to measure objects (the measurement results are compared with the corresponding tables of forensic reference books, thus determining the height and some other data of the criminals, the models of the escaped vehicles, and resolving other issues important for the search);

— devices for compiling composite portraits of wanted persons (ID set of drawings IKR-2 or personal computers with a block of programs);

— mercury-quartz lamps and electron-optical converters (used for preliminary examination of clothing and other items in order to detect microparticles, as well as to identify counterfeits in documents);

— rapid drug testing kit «Polytest» (it includes eleven tests that allow you to determine the presence of cannabis, hashish, marijuana, raw opium, poppy straw, morphine, codeine, heroin, promidol, amphetamines, barbiturates, cocaine, ephedrine, LSD);

— the «Cotrast» device for detecting signs of changes in serial numbers during inspection of vehicles (allows you to detect changes in the thickness of paint coatings, soldering or welding of metal fragments with changes in marking data);

— the «Kinovary» device (designed for preliminary examination of briefcases, bags, clothing pockets and other objects in order to determine the transportation of gold in them by traces of mercury present on it). In the process of expert forensic examinations, the following are used:

— universal laboratory reproduction unit (ULARUS), designed for photographing and examining fingerprints, burglaries, documents and other objects (this unit can be used to photograph with diffuse and oblique light, in infrared and ultraviolet rays, perform micro- and macro photography, reproduce line and halftone documents, make slides and perform other work);

— comparative forensic microscope (CCM) for examining the smallest traces on bullets, cartridges, cartridges and other objects (allows not only to detect traces, but also to perform optical alignment, for example, of a trace on a bullet extracted from a corpse with a trace on an experimentally fired bullet);

— optical superposition device (OSD), designed to examine paper and metal money, impressions of seals and stamps, document forms produced by typographic method, and other similar objects (allows to superimpose an optical image of the object under study on the same image of the sample);

— a device called a «Trasograph», which allows one to obtain experimental traces on lead plates or other soft metal from burglary tools for the purpose of subsequent comparison with traces taken from the scene of the crime;

— the «Speed» unit (designed to fire firearms received for examination and to obtain experimental bullets and cartridges for subsequent comparison with the same objects attached to the case as material evidence). A similar «Drob» unit is under development, which will be equipped with a millisecond watch to determine the bullet speed and the lethal force of the weapon being examined:

— the «Razvertka» unit for photographing traces of weapons on the side surfaces of bullets, cartridges and cartridges, as well as fingerprints on bottles, glasses and other cylindrical surfaces;

— the «Dactyloscope» device, designed for the commission study of so-called difficult fingerprints (allows two or more experts to simultaneously study the characteristics of fingerprints taken from the scene of the crime and the papillary patterns of the suspect's fingerprints: the objects being studied can be photographed on the same device). At present, a more advanced device based on a personal computer has begun to be supplied to forensic units instead of this device.

The above are just a few of the devices used in traditional forensic investigations. The forensic science departments also include physical-chemical, fire-technical, food and other laboratories. They are equipped with special devices that allow for the examination of material evidence at the most modern level. Various methods are used in the above laboratories. Spectral analysis is based on the study of the spectrum of the substances being examined. Its essence lies in the fact that a small amount of the substance being examined is placed in a special device — a spectrograph (laboratories have different models of them), where the substance evaporates in the flame of an electric arc or spark and the individual atoms obtained in this way are excited and emit light. Through a system of lenses, it falls on a prism and decomposes into a spectrum, which is then deciphered using special tables or a computer built into the spectrograph. With the help of spectral analysis, an unknown substance and its chemical composition are determined. This method is widely used in the study of paint coatings, such as car paints, fuels and lubricants, soils, particles of building materials and other substances. Luminescent analysis is based on the ability of some substances to glow when exposed to ultraviolet or infrared rays. Luminescence has different colors. Luminescence is recorded visually, as well as with the help of devices (electron-optical converter) and photographically. The method is very sensitive and is used in the study of etched and poorly visible texts, for reading flooded texts, detecting blood stains, sperm, oil stains, secret writing that are invisible in ordinary light, when comparing dyes, restoring texts on burnt documents, detecting weapon grease in gunshot marks and in other cases. Chromatographic methods are based on the separation of sets of substances into components. Depending on the separation method, a distinction is made between paper, thin-layer and gas chromatography. When using paper chromatography, the substance being studied is converted into a solution and a strip of filter paper is lowered into it, which absorbs it. The components of the solution, due to their different properties, end up on different parts of the paper. Their location is determined by color reactions.

In the case of thin-layer chromatography, glass plates with an adsorbent coated on them — silica gel are used. In gas chromatography, the substance being studied is introduced into the columns using a microsyringe

N 5. Technical and forensic trace-forming means

In practice, and in literature, technical and forensic trace-forming means are often called chemical traps, since they leave hard-to-remove and clearly visible traces of their impact on the criminal. However, it is more correct to call them trace-forming means, since their main purpose is not to lure the criminal into a trap, but to form additional traces on him in the event of his committing a crime, facilitating the search «hot on the trail» and his exposure. Trace-forming means include: chemical dyes (powder, liquid, ointment), dye sprayers, masking agents, i.e. devices in which the dye and the scattering device are placed. Trace-forming means have found wide application in the fight against theft from pharmacies, retail outlets, warehouses, changing rooms at enterprises, office desks in institutions, pockets and bags in transport and other public places. The idea of creating trace-forming substances was suggested by practice itself. Criminal investigation officers are well aware of cases where the disclosure of a theft was significantly facilitated if the criminal accidentally stained his hands, shoes or clothes with oil paint, whitewash or other coloring substance at the time of the crime. Such cases were considered a great success, since this unmasked the criminal and contributed to his quick arrest.

The development and use of trace-forming agents turns random luck into a pattern, since trace-forming agents, when applied to a person's body and clothing, dye them in bright colors that catch the eye of citizens, which helps to detain the criminal. The dyes used in trace-forming agents are quite stable. They can be washed off only with the use of an effective detergent, but even after the removal of visible colored stains, dye particles remain for a long time under the nails, in the folds of the skin and are easily detected in ultraviolet rays, under the influence of which they luminesce. As for clothing, the drug that has gotten on it can only be completely removed by dry cleaning. During the time until the criminal washes off the dye that has gotten on him, he meets with colleagues, salespeople, catering workers and other citizens who inevitably pay attention to the colored parts of the body or clothing, which makes it much easier to establish his identity.

Trace-forming agents are divided into active and passive. Active trace-forming agents are those that have devices for ejecting a dye into space and thus ensure that it gets on the clothes and exposed parts of the body of the person who activated the device. The dye can be ejected either by the activation of a mechanical device, such as a spring, or by the activation of an explosive in special pyropatrons. Passive trace-forming agents do not have any triggering devices. Their design is calculated for direct contact with them by the person committing the crime. In passive trace-forming agents, the dye in the form of powder mixtures or ointments is either applied directly to the object that may attract the attention of the criminal, or placed in bags, paraffin capsules or other packaging and disguised among such objects. The activation of active trace-forming agents is accompanied by a certain noise (explosion of a pyropatron, click of a spring) and is always obvious to the person committing the crime. When a passive trace-forming device is triggered, the criminal may not even know this fact and discovers it only after some time. The same object can be blocked by several active and passive trace-forming devices. In this case, objects are often installed that make it easier for the criminal to leave fingerprints.

There are a number of requirements for trace-forming agents:
1) They must not be dangerous to humans. Only those means are used that contain chemicals that are completely harmless to humans, and the force of their ejection cannot cause mechanical damage to the eyes or other organs. For example, when developing a pyropatron designed to eject a chemical dye, the explosive charge was determined with particular care. The cartridge was adopted for service only after comprehensive medical and biological testing on rabbits and other living organisms and receiving a medical report on the results of such testing.
2) The design of trace-forming means must be constantly changing. When using the same designs, criminals are able to quickly recognize them. When committing crimes, they will try not to touch them. A variety of designs of trace-forming means is also necessary due to the fact that it is necessary to block a wide variety of objects (shops, pharmacies, locker rooms, etc.).
3) Trace-forming agents must be reliable in operation, designed for long-term use in various climatic zones. The dyes used in trace-forming agents are hygroscopic and easily absorb moisture. In humid climates, if special measures are not taken to protect them from moisture, they can quickly become unusable. Therefore, in areas with a humid climate, the dyes in the trace-forming device are sealed (filled with paraffin or placed in paraffin capsules, sealed in thick paper bags, etc.).
4) In terms of design, trace-forming means must be simple, designed for the use of improvised materials and unskilled labor for their manufacture (police school cadets, etc.). Only ejecting devices are manufactured in factories — pyropatrons, mechanical devices, basic mixtures of dyes. They are the basis for any design developed directly on site. This ensures a huge variety of trace-forming means, which does not allow criminals to recognize them when committing crimes.
5) Trace-forming agents must be cheap, since they block a huge number of objects; if they are expensive, then significant funds will be required for their production. Practice has developed the following procedure for using trace-forming agents. Criminal investigation officers determine the objects to be blocked by these agents and their quantity. In accordance with this, together with the forensic department, they develop the design of trace-forming agents and organize their production. The composition of the dye is determined by a chemist on the basis of centrally supplied basic mixtures applicable to a separate territorial zone. The latter is important, since when a suspect is detained, the area of the crime scene can be determined based on the substance found on him.

The fact of installing a trace-forming agent at an object is documented by a report of the established form, drawn up by a criminal investigation officer or a district inspector. It specifies the name of the blocked object, the position and last name of the police officer who installed the trace-forming agent, the last name, first name, patronymic of the financially responsible person, the appearance of the trace-forming agent and the chemical substance used in it (without specifying it exactly). The financially responsible person is given detailed instructions on the rules for handling the trace-forming agent and is warned not to disclose the fact of its installation. A sealed bag with a sample of the dye is attached to the report. The list of all objects blocked by these means is kept in the duty unit of the internal affairs agency and is used to inform the investigative team leaving for the scene of the crime. The fact of the activation of the trace-forming agent is reflected in the protocol of the inspection of the scene of the crime, and urgent information about this is transmitted by radio to the operational squads to search for the criminals «hot on the trail». A sample of the dye is attached to the inspection protocol if, as a result of the activation of the trace-forming agent, it partially spilled and was confiscated. Sometimes the trace-forming agent (often passive) is taken away by the criminals.

In such cases, the investigator indicates in the crime scene inspection report that, according to the financially responsible person participating in the inspection, a trace-forming agent was present in such and such a place the day before the crime, but was not found at the time of the inspection. This fact is recorded in more detail in the interrogation report of this person. The act of blocking the object with a trace-forming agent and the sample of the dye attached to it are requested from the police agency and are attached to the criminal case. When the criminal is found, he is immediately examined and his clothes are inspected, a personal search is conducted, as well as a search at his place of residence and work. In all cases, an ultraviolet illuminator is used. If a substance that could have been formed by a trace-forming agent is found on his body, it is removed using a gauze swab. Clothes with traces of such a substance are sent for physical and chemical examination. It is advisable to entrust the examination to the forensic department of the local Ministry of Internal Affairs, Department of Internal Affairs, since the experts of this department are well aware of the methods of studying substances used in trace-forming agents.

The experts are usually asked two questions:
1) what is the composition of the substance that caused the stain on the clothes (body) of the suspect;
2) does it match the composition of the trace-forming agent substance found where the crime was committed. For comparative examination, a sample of the substance attached to the report is sent for examination along with the clothing (tampon).

CHAPTER X FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY AND VIDEO-SOUND RECORDING

N 1. The concept of forensic photography, cinematography and video-sound recording

Forensic photography, cinematography, video and sound recording devices are used in investigative practice, firstly, to obtain visual illustrative and at the same time evidentiary material and, secondly, to identify such objects, traces and facts that, being beyond the threshold of sensitivity of the organs of sight and hearing, are not perceived during examinations and studies under normal conditions. In addition, these means are also a reliable «memory device». They seem to imprint for the future what may not be preserved in nature. The inspection of the crime scene, as a rule, is accompanied by photography. Photographic images of traces and other objects — carriers of forensic information supplement their description in the protocol, give a visual idea of the material environment encountered by the investigator. Video recording used during interrogation not only conveys the content of the testimony received, but also characterizes the environment in which it was obtained. In some cases, it is sufficient to use sound recording (tape recorder) rather than video recording during interrogation, when, for example, a minor witness is being interrogated, and the peculiarities of his speech are fully reflected by this means. Photography is of exceptional importance in the production of forensic examinations, during which it serves not only as an illustration of the properties and characteristics of objects that form the basis of the conclusion, but also as a tool for identifying, analyzing and comparatively studying these properties and characteristics. Such studies are usually associated with the use of special equipment and rather complex methods. Thus, forensic photography, cinematography, video and sound recording can be defined as a branch of forensic technology, which is a system of scientific provisions, technical means and methods for obtaining images of objects and facts for the purpose of recording and studying them when solving investigative problems.

Forensic photography, cinematography, video and sound recording are based on general-purpose technical means and methods that are universal. Their use in forensics has acquired a specific legal focus, due to the characteristics of the objects being captured and the tasks being solved. These characteristics allow for forensic purposes to use only those methods of obtaining images that ensure the accuracy and objectivity of the capture and the ability to verify the correspondence of the information obtained with their help to the real facts. Photography and cinematography, thanks to achievements in physics, chemistry and other sciences, have achieved significant technical success and are currently used in a wide variety of areas of human activity. Modern photography allows shooting in the dark, fog, to see what is inaccessible to the human eye. Accelerated and slow-motion filming makes it possible to see the process of fleeting and slow phenomena. In order to achieve the greatest illustrative effect of the dynamics (progress and result) of an investigative action (investigative experiment, verification of testimony on the spot, etc.), various camera techniques can be used in forensic cinematography: a static frame, panning, «zooming in» and «zooming out», horizontal and vertical camera movement. However, an indispensable requirement remains the prevention of techniques that distort reality. In forensic cinematography, professional (35 and 16 mm) and amateur (16 and 8 mm) movie cameras can be used. Preference should be given to cameras that are sufficiently portable and provide high image quality. With the advent and spread of video recording technology, it also began to be used in investigative practice and, moreover, began to displace cinematography. Compared to filming, video recording has a number of advantages: it is faster, simpler and more convenient to use, the exposed material does not require any additional processing, the visible image can be accompanied by audio explanations simultaneously with the filming. The recording can be immediately demonstrated on the video monitor screen. When demonstrating the recording, a table-frame is possible if it is necessary to study any details.

Sound recording during investigative actions is carried out on professional (studio) and amateur tape recorders. The methods of their use are determined by procedural rules. There are no differences in the technical methods of working with a tape recorder in forensic science and in its ordinary everyday use. Depending on the tasks facing the shooting and the methods for solving them, forensic photography, cinematography and video recording are divided into: 1) recording (fixing) and 2) research (expert) shooting.

N 2. Recording shooting

Recording shooting is carried out during investigative actions by the investigator himself, a forensic specialist (specialist photographer) or another participant at the suggestion of the investigator in order to capture the situation, course and results of the investigative action. There are four types of photography:
1) orientation,
2) overview,
3) nodal and
4) detailed.

Conventional photography — photography with common household equipment (mainly SLR cameras such as the Zenit), without any special devices, without the use of special techniques. If necessary, interchangeable (wide-angle and telescopic) lenses, general-purpose light filters, sun hoods and similar accessories can be used. Such photography becomes forensic due to the specific nature of the object of the investigation and the procedural nature of the shooting tasks.
Panoramic photography is the shooting of extended plans that are not included in the camera frame, using universal and wide-angle lenses. Such shooting can be done with special panoramic cameras produced by the domestic industry, «FT-2» with a frame size of 24×110 mm and «Gorizont» with a frame size of 24×58 mm. With an ordinary household camera («Zenit», «Kiev», «Zorky», etc.), a panorama can be shot in several successive shots with some overlap of each previous frame with the next frame. According to noticeable landmarks in the places of overlap, the positives are cut and glued into a single panoramic picture. Panoramic photography can be done from one point by rotating the camera around its vertical axis (circular panorama), or from different points equidistant from the shooting plan by moving the camera along a line parallel to the object being shot (linear panorama). Shooting a circular panorama is only possible with a significant (practically more than 30 m) distance from the shooting plan. This is mainly shooting of open areas. In rooms with limited space, only linear panoramic photography is possible. Photos for making a panorama must be taken under the same conditions (shooting distance, aperture, exposure).
Stereoscopic photography is photography of three-dimensional nature. It is done when it is necessary to show the effect of volume in the picture, the mutual arrangement of objects in depth. Stereoscopic photography can be done with a special camera «Sputnik» with two lenses, through which two independent negatives are simultaneously obtained at different angles of view corresponding to human visual perception. Stereoscopic photography is also possible with an ordinary camera. In this case, two pictures are taken by moving the camera horizontally at a distance of the average eye base (65 mm). Positives from two negatives are glued to thick paper (a stereo pair is prepared). When examining a stereo pair through a stereoscope, a feeling of three-dimensionality of the captured objects arises.
Measuring photography is photography with an image scale. It allows one to determine the size of the captured objects and the distances between them from a photograph. The simplest and most common method of measuring photography is scale photography — photography with a special or regular ruler with centimeter and millimeter divisions. The ruler is placed next to the object being photographed in the plane of its most important details: the camera is installed so that its focal plane is parallel to the upper plane of the photographed object. More complex is photography with a depth scale. In this case, a tape with black and white squares marked with the focal length of the lens used is used as a scale. The distances between the objects being photographed are calculated by the number of such squares (the first of which is located under the vertical from the object).
Reproduction photography is the photography of flat objects: manuscripts, drawings, documents, etc. When reproducing with either a special stationary camera (like SGRA) or a regular small-format camera, the parallelism of the plane of the object and the photographic layer in the camera must be maintained; the optical axis of the lens must be directed to the center of the object being photographed; the illumination must be uniform over the entire surface of the document being photographed. The lens is usually stopped down to a relative aperture of 8 or 11.

Line documents can be reproduced without a camera, using the so-called reflex method. In this case, special reflex — high-contrast, low-sensitivity, thin-backed — photographic paper is used as a negative material. Positive printing from the negative obtained in this way is possible both on reflex and on regular high-contrast photographic paper. 6. Sign-imprinting (identification) photography — under-the-bus photography of arrested and convicted persons for criminal registration, as well as possible search and identification. Sign-imprinting photography is performed in a pretrial detention facility using stationary photographic equipment in a specially equipped environment with a fixed head position and optimally selected lighting. When shooting in other conditions, the rules established for it must be observed. The shooting is performed in full face and right profile. The person being photographed is not allowed to wear glasses, headgear, or bandages that conceal details of their appearance. Hair is brushed back from the auricle. Technical retouching of negatives and positives is not performed. Both photographs are printed at a scale of 1:7 on one sheet of photographic paper measuring 9 x 12 cm (profile image on the left). If the person being photographed has any striking, special features on the left side of their head, an additional photograph is taken of their left profile and in 3/4 of their turn. The same rules apply to photographing corpses of unknown persons. If there are any injuries to the corpse, before photographing it for identification purposes, the forensic physician, at the suggestion of the investigator, sutures the wounds, performs other manipulations such as makeup (the «corpse toilet»), giving the face, if possible, a life-like appearance. Distinctive features of the corpse's appearance (damage, scars, birthmarks, etc.) are photographed even when they are on parts of the body hidden by clothing. 7. Large-scale photography — photography of small objects and traces (spent bullets, cartridges, fingerprints, etc.). The Zenit camera, mainly used in forensic photography, with a universal lens allows shooting from a minimum distance of 65 cm, which gives an image scale of 1:12 on the film. For shooting on a larger scale (up to 1:1), extension rings are used, the set of which includes 3 rings measuring 7, 14 and 28 mm. The ring (or their combination) required for shooting is screwed between the camera and the lens of the camera, thus increasing the focal length of the lens. The calculation of the image scale that will be obtained in this case is made by dividing the size of the installed ring by the focal length of the lens. When shooting, extension rings are selected in such a way as to make maximum use of the area of the camera's frame window. Since the use of extension rings increases the distance between the lens and the film, when shooting, it is necessary to correct the exposure towards increase (up to 4 times with a full set).

N 3. Research shooting

Investigative photography is performed by a specialist in laboratory conditions using special equipment and appropriate methods. The choice of specific photographic equipment and methods depends on the objects being examined and the tasks set for the examination. The following tasks may arise during various forensic examinations: 1) identifying details of an object that are invisible to the naked eye due to their small size; 2) identifying details that are inaccessible to normal vision and have little contrast with the surrounding background; 3) identifying details that are invisible under normal lighting. These tasks are solved using various methods.

Macro- and microphotography. The smallest traces and other details, inaccessible to visual examination, are detected and recorded using a camera with a special short-focus lens or through a microscope connected to a camera or photo attachment. The first method provides magnification of up to 20-30 times and is called macrophotography. More significant magnification (microphotography) is possible through microscopes — optical and electronic (up to several thousand times). The study of traces and details detected by macro- and microphotography is carried out using their enlarged images. The quality of the image of microobjects during shooting largely depends on careful focusing, since the depth of field in this case is insignificant, and on the correctly selected direction, strength and size of the light beam.
Photographic contrast enhancement. Contrast, i.e. the difference in brightness of an object and its details, can be so weak that visual differentiation becomes difficult. To enhance contrast (line elements of writing on paper, for example), a document is photographed on a contrasting photographic material, a single contrast photograph is taken with subsequent superimposition of images on each other, secondary photochemical image enhancement, and other methods.
Color separation. Color contrasts in the study of faded, etched, damaged (burned), crossed out texts, documents with additions, corrections of individual strokes or letters can be enhanced by photographing with light filters. In this case, the task is to deliberately distort the density of the background or details, traces on it. To select a light filter, use a circle of complementary colors. To enhance the display of a detail of a certain color, take a light filter of a color complementary to it (diametrically located in a circle), to reduce brightness — a light filter of the color of the weakened detail.
Application of different types of lighting. Depending on the surface structure of the object under study, the nature and degree of reflection and absorption of light by it, narrow-beam (lateral, oblique), diffuse (scattered), and transmitted (through) lighting are used during shooting. Lateral oblique lighting makes it possible to identify and record relief structures in an object using shadows outlining the contours of recessed details. In this way, indented traces of text on paper that served as a backing for writing, traces of preparation by pressure when making a forged signature, microtraces of a firearm's cartridge rest on the bottom of a spent cartridge case, etc. are detected. The use of diffuse (scattered) lighting is based on the difference in light reflection by objects that have the same visual coloring but different surface structures. In some cases, a specular reflection of light occurs (with equal angles of incidence and reflection), in others — diffuse reflection in all directions, independent of the angle of incidence of light. Selecting the optimal lighting for a particular case allows detecting traces of etching and erasure in documents, and recording faintly visible sweat and grease fingerprints on polished surfaces. Photographing in transmitted light is used to detect details or features on transparent (translucent) objects (fingerprints on glass, traces of erasure, etching on paper, etc.).
Shooting in invisible spectrum zones (ultraviolet, infrared, X-ray). Ultraviolet, infrared rays, as well as intense rays of some visible light zones, are capable of causing luminescence of individual substances in invisible spectrum zones. Luminescence is photographed using photographic materials sensitive to ultraviolet or infrared rays. A ZS-1, ZhZS-5, ZhS-17 or KS-19 light filter is attached to the camera lens. Photographing in reflected ultraviolet rays is based on the difference in their reflection and transmission, and, consequently, the effect on the photo layer of some substances that are equally perceived or visually invisible in ordinary light. Most often, photographing in reflected ultraviolet rays is done to restore documents etched with a chemical reagent. The document is illuminated with filtered ultraviolet light, and the shooting is done on photographic film. Texts filled in (crossed out) with aniline dye, made with a dye containing carbon, additional traces of a shot on dark-colored obstacles, traces of preliminary pencil preparation when forging signatures, etc. are photographed in reflected infrared rays. Shooting is done in filtered infrared light (through a light filter IKS-1, IKS-2, etc.) on infrachromatic photographic material or through an electron-optical converter — on ordinary photographic material. Photography in X-rays is based on their ability to penetrate three-dimensional objects and form a shadow image of their internal structure on the photographic material. The main characteristic of X-rays is their hardness (wavelength), which determines their penetrating ability through various obstacles. The hardness of the radiation of an X-ray tube in turn depends on the value of the electrical voltage supplied to it. And the higher it is, the shorter (harder) the wavelength of the radiation and the more intense their penetrating ability. The shadow image of the internal structure of the object under study is recorded on any negative photographic material. However, the best results are obtained using special X-ray film with emulsion layers applied on both sides.

N 4. Forensic sound recording

The use of forensic photography, cinematography, and video and sound recording during an investigation acquires evidentiary value only if properly executed, including procedural and technical aspects. The procedural aspect is regulated by the criminal procedure law. The rules for technical execution have been developed by practice. The photographs attached to the investigative action report are pasted onto sheets of thick paper or thin cardboard and executed in the form of photo tables, which must contain certain details. The title of the photo table indicates the report of which investigative action it is an appendix to and the date of its production. Each photograph is secured with the seal of the investigative body, partially applied to the photograph and partially to the paper of the photo table. A serial number is placed under each photograph and a brief explanatory note is made, corresponding to the shooting performed (location and object of shooting) indicated in the report. Each photo table is signed by the investigator and the forensic specialist (if he took the photos and made the photo tables).

The negatives of the filming done during the investigative action are attached to the protocol (photo tables), placed in an envelope on which explanatory notes are made (during which investigative action the filming was done, its date, the number of negatives). A film shot during an investigative action must contain explanations in the form of subtitles or a narrator's text. Subtitles are divided into two groups according to their content and purpose:

1) subtitles certifying the relevance of the film to a specific case (at the beginning of the film it is indicated for which case, during which investigative action it is being filmed, the place and date of filming);

2) subtitles commenting on the film episodes (they are recorded on the magnetic track of the film with sound or are removed after the investigative action has been carried out and are included in the film during its editing).

When video recording an interrogation, investigative experiment, or on-site verification of testimony, the entire investigative action is subject to filming from beginning to end. The film is composed of three consecutive parts: introductory, main, and concluding. The introductory part records the actions from the moment when the investigator, performing procedural formalities, states his position, last name, indicates the case for which the investigative action is being carried out, states the place and time of its production, the participants, explains their rights and obligations to them, and carries out other actions stipulated by the procedural law. The main part of the video film records the course of the investigative action with a synchronized sound recording of the dialogues of its participants. The concluding part of the video film is shot after the introductory and main parts of the investigative action have been shown to the participants. The frames shot in medium and close-up shots record the investigator's questioning of the participants in the investigative action, whether the video being played corresponds to the content and results of the investigative action. The film ends with answers to the questions posed and a message from the investigator about the end time of the investigative action. The use of sound recordings is similarly formalized. For ease of demonstration of film and video films, they must have initial and final leader strips (clean pieces of film measuring 1-1.5 m). A starting line is drawn in ink on the initial leader strip — the beginning of the demonstration, and an explanatory note is made: for what case, during what investigative action the film was shot, the footage of the film, the number of splices on it. Sound recordings on reel-to-reel magnetic tape are formalized in the same way. In the case of using a cassette tape recorder, explanatory notes are made on the cassette. Film and video films, tapes with magnetic sound recordings are packed in rigid boxes, on which explanatory notes are made about their relevance to a specific criminal case.

CHAPTER XI TRACEOLOGY

N 1, The Concept and Classification of Traces in Traceology

The technique of dusting depends on the properties of the powder and the surface that receives the traces. The simplest method is to sprinkle the surface to be treated with powder and then shake off the excess. Sheets of paper are processed this way. A fingerprint brush is used to process hard, smooth surfaces. Rubber bulbs, medical powder blowers and other sprayers are used to apply powder to hard, rough surfaces. The so-called magnetic brush (a magnetized metal rod enclosed in a plastic case) is used to process surfaces with reduced iron powder. Fingerprints revealed by powders are removed by copying them onto fingerprint film. Surface treatment with powders followed by copying the traces onto fingerprint film is performed only in cases where the trace cannot be detected visually or it is impossible to remove a visually detected trace with the object or part of it. Staining traces with iodine vapor is a physical method. Its essence is that iodine vapors, when fumigated with them, settle on the sweat-fat substance in the form of tiny solid crystals. With the help of iodine vapors, traces appear on paper, wood, plywood, whitewashed or oil-painted surfaces. There are several ways of coloring traces with iodine vapors. The most advanced of them is to use an iodine tube. This is a simple device, which is a glass tube with a spherical thickening in the middle, where crystalline iodine is placed. Sublimation of vapors is carried out by passing warm air through the tube. With the help of an iodine tube, it is convenient to treat surfaces of any size and configuration. To reveal traces on small objects, such as cigarette butts, scraps of paper, etc., they are placed in a glass jar, where there are several iodine crystals. If it is necessary to treat a large surface, you can use this method. A glass jar containing iodine crystals is covered with flat glass and heated. Iodine vapors are deposited on the glass, which is then applied to the surfaces where traces are being sought. Iodine vapors color the traces brown, but after some time they become discolored due to evaporation of the iodine. There are several ways to fix traces stained with iodine.

Traces revealed by iodine vapors are photographed according to the rules of detailed photography.
Traces stained with iodine vapor are additionally dusted with reduced iron powder. (This produces iron iodide, the trace acquires a stable dark brown color and is firmly held on the trace-receiving surface.)
A piece of photographic material moistened with distilled water is pressed tightly against the trace fumigated with iodine. Then the photographic film or photographic paper is developed in the light, fixed, washed and dried. The image is obtained due to the fact that iodine acts as a weakener in places of contact with the photoemulsion layer. Chemical methods for detecting invisible sweat and fat traces are based on the ability of some components of the sweat and fat substance to enter into a color reaction with such chemical reagents as silver nitrate, ninhydrin and alloxan. Silver nitrate is used as a one percent solution in distilled water. After applying the solution with a cotton swab, the object is exposed to bright sunlight or placed under a mercury-quartz lamp without a filter. Under the influence of ultraviolet rays, the silver chloride formed as a result of the reaction between silver nitrate and chloride salts of the sweat and fat substance turns into metallic silver, which colors the trace black. Ninhydrin and alloxan react with the protein breakdown products that make up the sweat and fat substance to produce a color reaction. They are used as a one percent solution in acetone. When exposed to heat, ninhydrin colors the trace purple, and alloxan colors it orange. Traces identified by chemical methods are recorded by photography. The seized traces and comparison samples — fingerprints of the papillary patterns of the individuals being tested — are sent for fingerprint examination for identification purposes. Depending on which areas of the skin surface left the fingerprints being tested, fingerprints of the palms or fingerprints of all ten fingers are made on clean sheets of paper with printing ink. Under each fingerprint, a note is made indicating which hand and finger made it. The sheets indicate who left the comparison fingerprints and the signature of the individual being tested.If the person being tested was previously on the fingerprint register, then his fingerprint card may be presented for comparison. Sweat, grease, or three-dimensional fingerprints, the belonging of which to a certain person is known in advance, may be used as comparative samples. The need to use such samples arises when it is impossible to obtain special comparative samples or when the fingerprint card of the person being tested is not available. The safety of traces sent for examination is ensured by their proper packaging. Fingerprints seized directly from the trace-receiving object are packaged so that the traces do not come into contact with the walls of the package. It is strictly forbidden to wrap unprotected objects in soft packaging material.

N 3. Footprints

The angle of foot placement in men usually does not exceed 12 degrees. The angle of foot placement in women usually exceeds this value and often reaches 20 degrees. Human height is determined by the length of a single footprint. The length of the foot is on average 15.8% of the height of men and 15.5% of the height of women. When calculating, it should be taken into account that the length of the shoe sole exceeds the length of the foot by 10-15 mm. This value should also be taken into account when determining the shoe size, which, according to the modern size scale, is equal to the length of the last (foot) with an accuracy of 0.5 cm. Determining whether the shoe fits the foot, whether it is small or large, is made by displaying signs of shoe wear in the footprints. If the heels are more worn, the shoe is loose, but if the shoe is small, the signs of wear are mainly in the toe part. The fact that the shoe is too big may be evidenced by the lack of imprint of the toe in the volumetric footprint. A judgment on the type and style of the shoe is made on the basis of studying the shape of the sole and its parts displayed in the footprint, the nature of the relief pattern. After studying the footprints at the scene of the crime, they are photographed and described in the report. When describing the track of the footprints, its length, the nature of the terrain, the surface that receives the footprints, and the results of measuring the elements of the track of the footprints are indicated. With regard to single footprints, it is necessary to indicate the location of the footprint relative to other stationary objects, the type of soil or the nature of the surface that receives the footprints, the color and consistency of the substance that formed the surface footprint, characterize the footprint in accordance with the general trace classification, and reflect the shape and dimensions of the display of the sole and its parts. Photographing the footprints necessarily precedes other methods of recording and removal. The track of the footprints is photographed using the linear panorama method using a large-scale ruler with centimeter and millimeter divisions. For detailed shooting, the footprints are selected in which the identification features are most clearly displayed. The location of the footprints at the scene of the crime is noted on the general plan of the scene of the crime. The elements of the track and features of single footprints are shown on the diagrams. If the traces are left on objects that can be removed in whole or in part, then the footprints are removed directly. Otherwise, they are limited to photographing and other methods of removal are used.

Traces of a break-in may be caused by tools specially made or adapted for breaking in. Break-ins are often carried out using various tools used in everyday life.

The classification of a sliding trace as scrapings or compactions serves as the basis for determining the spatial position and direction of movement of the tool, and this in turn helps to clarify the mechanism of trace formation and the method of breaking. In trace examination of locks, the location of sliding traces on the parts allows us to determine the method of unlocking the lock, establish the group affiliation of the key or master key. The relief of the sliding traces can be used to identify the object used to unlock the lock. Cutting traces are left by such methods of breaking in, when cutting tools are used as breaking tools. Axes are used to break into floors and plank walls, doors are often broken by drilling and sawing out a mortise lock, padlocks are often broken by cutting the shackle with entrenching scissors or sawing it with a hacksaw. The use of a particular type of tool corresponds to a certain cutting method, which has a specific mechanism of trace formation. All types of cutting can be divided into three types: simple cut (cut), counter cut and cut with separation of small particles of material (planing, sawing, drilling). Simple cut or cut consists in dividing the obstacle into parts using wedge-shaped cutting tools. This is how an axe, chisel, knife work. As a result of their use, traces of a simple cut remain, and they appear simultaneously on two parts of the cut object and their relief does not coincide, since they are formed by different sides of the cutting edge. The location of the tracks in the trace is affected by the counter cutting angle, while the frontal position of the tool does not matter, since the frontal angle is constant here. Counter cut consists in dividing the object into parts using two cutting blades moving towards each other. This method of cutting is typical for metalworking and sapper scissors, nippers, side cutters, pliers. The traces formed by them are called counter cut traces. On the end face of each part of the cut object, traces from different sides of two cutting edges remain, the opposite and inclined position of which is constant. Cutting with the separation of small particles of materials of the barrier occurs during planing, drilling and sawing using appropriate tools. In this case, traces of planing, traces of drilling and traces of sawing are formed.

Planing marks are formed when a knife or other simple cutting tool is used to widen holes in plank barriers. The resulting planing marks differ from simple cut marks only in the size of the separated particles (chips). The chips, as well as the planing marks on the barrier, display signs of the cutting edge of the tools. Drilling marks are formed by drills of different types and diameters, so they can be used to determine the group affiliation of the drill. The cutting edge of the drill displays its relief on the chips and on the bottom of the marks, if they are not through. The direction of rotation of the drill and the side of drilling are determined by the walls of the mark. Sawing marks are formed by saw teeth. The cutting edges of the teeth leave marks that are overlapped by marks from other teeth. Sawing marks are therefore unsuitable for identification purposes, unlike drilling marks. The size of the teeth can be determined by sawing marks. The sawdust can also be used to judge the general characteristics of a saw, and their location can be used to judge the side of the cut: most of them are on the side opposite to where the burglar was. Fracture marks are formed outside of contact with the burglar's tool when dividing an object. Fracture marks are preceded by tensile, bending, twisting or shearing deformations. Depending on the deformation that preceded the destruction of the barrier, different types of fracture marks are formed: rupture marks, fracture marks, twisting marks and shear marks. Tear marks remain when the soft elements of an obstacle are destroyed when breaking into it. Thus, tear marks remain on wallpaper when walls are broken into, on leatherette and linoleum when floors are broken into, on roofing felt when ceilings are broken into. Traces of fracture are left when breaking light wooden barriers: walls and ceilings of light summer buildings, sheds, fences, fences. Traces of shift and traces of twisting as independent traces during breaking are not found, but are components of traces of rupture and traces of fracture. The forensic significance of traces of fracture is that they can be used to determine the side from which the break-in was made and to establish the whole from parts. Traces of fracture on the ends of a wooden barrier have a relief in the form of protruding fibers. The part of the surface with a smoother relief is adjacent to the side from which the force was applied.

The relief of fracture and break marks on two parts of a divided object is conformal, the protruding elements on one part correspond to the depressions on the other part. When establishing the correspondence of reliefs in fracture and break marks, possible distortions caused by twisting or shearing should be taken into account. Traces of burglary are, in the overwhelming majority of cases, traces of mechanical action. Sometimes, when breaking into metal safes, traces of thermal action are encountered. The formation of such traces is associated with the effect of high temperature of acetylene, gasoline or kerosene mixed with oxygen. Various autogenous devices are used as burglary tools. The professional skills of the burglar, the type of device and the diameter of the cutting tip can be determined by thermal traces of burglary. Traces of burglary for their laboratory examination are best removed with the object or part of the object on which they are located. When sawing or cutting out a part of an object, it is necessary to strive to ensure that all traces are removed from it. If this is impossible, the diagram shows the removed sections of the barrier with traces. Before removal, traces of the break-in are photographed according to the rules of nodal and detailed photography. If it is impossible to remove traces of the break-in with the object or part of it, the traces are copied using plastic mass (silicone paste, plasticine, paraffin, wax, etc.).

N 5. Traces of vehicles

Animal tracks are encountered in forensic practice when they are used for criminal purposes as horse-drawn or pack transport, or in cases where animals are stolen. Most often, the objects of trace examination are horse tracks. When a horse moves, its hooves leave tracks that can be used to determine the direction of movement, gait (walk, trot, gallop), the position of the front and back legs, and also to determine whether the horse was shod and on which legs. Individual hoof tracks can be used to determine the group affiliation and individual identity of a horse. The hoof consists of a horny sole, which is bordered by a horny wall in front and a horn frog in the back. The hoof tracks display the following features: the size and shape of the hoof (wide, narrow), the shape of the sole (flat, concave), the shape of the lower edge of the horny wall and frog, as well as specific signs of hoof deformation. Traces of forged hooves reflect: the general shape of the horseshoe, its dimensions, the number and shape of the spikes, the shape of the nail tracks, the number of nail holes and the nails in them, the location of the nail heads, as well as signs of deformation that occurred during the manufacture, installation and use of the horseshoe. Animal traces can be three-dimensional and superficial. They are recorded and removed in the same way as human footprints. Traces of human teeth remain on food products, cigarette butts, chewing gum, on the body and clothing of a person. The structure of the dental apparatus and the external structure of the teeth are individual, and therefore identification of a person is possible based on teeth marks. The nature and location of bite marks can help establish the circumstances associated with their formation. Identification features reflected in teeth marks are: the nature of the bite of the jaws, which can be direct, upper and lower; the shape and size of the jaw arch; relative position of teeth and jaw arch: size of teeth and distances between them: absence of teeth: signs of diseases, sanitation and prosthetics. Recording of traces of teeth on the human body is carried out by photographing them. Traces on food products and other objects are removed directly with these objects, taking measures to protect them from damage during transportation and storage. Comparative samples for trace identification research are experimental traces on dental prosthetic material, which are obtained by the expert conducting the examination or a dental specialist.

N 7. Trace examination

Trace examination begins from the moment traces are discovered at the scene of the crime. The preliminary examination of traces is carried out by the investigator. It is recommended to invite a forensic specialist to participate in it. The results of the preliminary trace examination allow the investigator to draw conclusions about the features of the mechanism of trace formation, to put forward and verify investigative versions about the circumstances of the crime. When recording traces, the protocol must reflect.

1) the type of traces discovered,
2) the location of the traces at the scene of the crime relative to the furnishings of the scene of the crime:
3) the location of the traces on the trace-receiving object:
4) the relative position of the traces;
5) the color, consistency, structure, smell of the trace-forming substance:
6) the size of the traces and their parts (length, width, depth);
7) the shape of the traces and their parts:
8) specific identification features reflected in the trace.

If the case requires an expert opinion, the investigator appoints a trace examination. The issues resolved by a trace examination can be combined into the following three groups:
1) concerning the mechanism of trace formation;
2) associated with establishing the group affiliation of the trace-forming object;
3) associated with identifying the specific object that left the trace.

The study of the mechanism of trace formation is often an independent task of the study, but more often the solution of the questions related to it is only a necessary prerequisite for establishing group affiliation and identification. The objects of trace examination are traces, their copies and supposed trace-forming objects. The resolution on the appointment of trace examination must indicate which objects are sent for examination, their quantity, the method and time of seizure, the time and conditions of storage before sending for examination. It is also recommended to provide the expert with the protocol of inspection of the scene of the crime and the protocol of obtaining samples for comparison, plans, diagrams and photographs of the scene of the crime and traces. Having convinced himself in the process of expert examination that the objects correspond to their description in the resolution, the expert proceeds to their separate examination.

Investigation of crimes involving the use of firearms cannot be successfully conducted without the use of special knowledge. Already during the first inspection of the crime scene, the investigator faces many circumstances, the clarification of which requires special knowledge and skills in the detection, seizure, and examination of the relevant objects. Even determining whether individual discovered objects belong to the category of firearms or ammunition sometimes causes difficulties and must be supported by an expert opinion. Regardless of the legislator's attitude to the issue of freedom to carry weapons, there will always be norms providing for criminal punishment for the illegal acquisition and use of firearms. To establish the truth in cases of this category, as a rule, a set of studies is required. To determine the circumstances of the shot (distance, direction, relative position of the weapon and the victim at the time of the shot, etc.), specialists from different fields of knowledge are often involved. The provisions of general ballistics play a significant role in the formation of special forensic ballistic knowledge. However, the specific nature of investigative and judicial tasks has necessitated the development of a number of special forensic recommendations, taking into account individual provisions of such sciences as chemistry, physics, and mathematics.

Forensic ballistics is closely related to traceology and forensic medicine. As a branch of forensic technology, forensic ballistics is a system of scientific and technical means and methods for detecting, recording, seizing and examining objects in order to determine their species (group) affiliation, identification, and to establish the fact and circumstances of a shot. The objects of ballistic research are: firearms, their individual parts, blanks of weapon parts, various firing devices, ammunition, tools and materials used to manufacture weapon parts and ammunition, objects with shell holes and with products deposited on them that accompany a shot (combustion products of the primer composition and gunpowder in the form of soot, individual unburned grains of gunpowder, metal particles separated from weapon parts and ammunition). In addition, objects in which weapons or ammunition were stored can be objects of such research. In forensic practice, there are various types of firearms and ammunition made not only in factories, but also in handicraft ways. Quite often, an object that looks like a firearm is not one, and vice versa — something that does not look like one can be classified as a firearm. Forensic criteria for classifying such objects as firearms or ammunition are somewhat different from military-technical criteria. Firearms. In addition to the general feature — intended purpose, the concept of a firearm must also include a number of special features that are assessed in combination: a) the use of the energy of explosive gases (gunpowder, etc.) to launch projectiles; b) the presence of a barrel to give direction to the projectile’s movement; c) the presence of a device for igniting the charge; d) sufficient damaging effect of the projectile; d) sufficient structural strength. In order for an object to be classified as a firearm, the last two features must be quantified. In contrast to military-technical requirements, the criteria for assessing these features in forensic science are minimum indicators.

Thus, the design of the weapon must ensure the possibility of producing more than one shot. The scientific criterion for assessing the damaging effect of a projectile (killing force) is the minimum specific kinetic energy equal to 0.05 kgm/mm (for spherical projectiles: for pointed ones — it may have a lower limit). This indicator corresponds to approximately 1.1-3.0 kgf.m of the initial kinetic energy of projectiles of different calibers (the military-technical indicator of killing force is 8 kgf.m). To determine the group affiliation of a weapon, the design and functional features of a specific weapon are compared with scientific classifications of small arms. Small arms are classified by: purpose; degree of automation: number of cartridges held; loading method; number of barrels; barrel caliber, its length, design features; manufacturing method, design features of the entire weapon; method of control and holding the weapon. Non-standard firearms have any deviations in design compared to standard weapons of a similar type or differ in the length of the barrel, stock, etc. This may include, for example, multi-barrel pistols and revolvers, sawed-off shotguns, rifles, etc. Atypical weapons also have a non-standard design, but their main feature is that they are disguised as some household items: pens, canes, umbrellas, etc. Homemade weapons are weapons manufactured without observing standards, usually in small batches. Homemade weapons are made mainly from scrap materials, sometimes with partial use of parts of factory weapons or some devices. Of great practical importance is the issue of criteria for distinguishing sawed-off shotguns from the types of weapons from which they are made.

With regard to hunting rifles, it has been established that shortening the barrel of a rifle of any caliber (including sporting) to a residual length of less than 500 mm, including the chamber (the part of the barrel where the cartridge is placed), is the limit when a significant loss of ballistic properties and operational qualities of the rifles occurs, and other technical and design features of a qualitatively new firearm — combat, designed to hit a living target at close range appear. If the barrel length of a specific weapon is more than 500 mm and its stock is not changed, then such an object is classified as a lightweight rifle. Ammunition. The concept of ammunition is considered in a broad and narrow sense. In everyday life and in specialized literature, they often include not only cartridges, grenades, mines, but also all the components used in loading these items (gunpowder, shot, wads, gaskets, etc.). In the narrow sense of the word, this concept only includes such items for the illegal carrying, storage, acquisition, manufacture, sale and theft of which criminal liability occurs. In this sense, ammunition is a single-use item intended to destroy an object by firing a shot or exploding. Mandatory elements of such items are explosives and an igniting device. When deciding whether to classify items as ammunition, their damaging effect is assessed taking into account the specific conditions of the shot or explosion at the scene of the incident.

Ammunition encountered in forensic practice can be divided into two classes: explosive and small arms. The first class includes various types of grenades, mines, usually factory-made, and homemade explosive devices, which in most cases use hunting cartridge powder. Ammunition of the second class is cartridges for small arms. They can be standard, i.e. intended for firing from a specific model of weapon, and non-standard, i.e. adapted for firing from another model of weapon. Cartridges for modern firearms are unitary, i.e. all their elements are placed in one part, called a cartridge case. Cartridges for rifled weapons are made of metal (brass, steel coated with tombac or varnish, red copper, etc.). For hunting rifles, in addition to metal (brass), combined cartridges are made, which have a metal base (steel), and a paper or plastic body. According to the shape, cartridges can be cylindrical, bottle-shaped, conical. In cartridges for rifled weapons, the following are distinguished (the terms are standardized): cut, muzzle, slope, body, bottom, base part, groove, flange, partition, primer nest, ignition hole, anvil (if it is not mounted in the primer), and loading chamber. The primer is the igniter of the centerfire cartridge (in most weapon models, the firing pin is located in line with the axis of the barrel bore). Usually it consists of an igniter, an anvil and a cap (primers of the Boxer, Zhevelo type).

Anvilless primers (such as «Berdan» or «TsBO») are used in cartridges that have an anvil in the primer seat. In rimfire cartridges (most models of small-caliber weapons in which the firing pin is offset from the center), the igniting composition is pressed around the circumference in the bottom of the cartridges (hence the other name — «circular ignition cartridges»). Gunpowder is used in cartridges as a propellant charge. Gunpowder is divided into two classes: mechanical mixtures (smoky, etc.) and colloidal or smokeless. Smokeless gunpowder is widespread, they vary in shape and color. The propellant element of the cartridges is bullets, shot or buckshot. The first type of bullet was a ball, which is still used in cartridges for smoothbore hunting weapons. In addition to spherical bullets, these cartridges use the following bullets: arrow-shaped, turbine, turbo-arrow. In cartridges for rifled weapons, bullets are used without a jacket, with a jacket, semi-jacketed, with a hole in the head. Bullets differ in shape: pointed, cylindrical-spherical, ogive (blunt-ended) and with a flat tip. Jacketed and semi-jacketed bullets have a core, usually made of lead alloy. For military purposes, jacketed bullets are usually used, which include special-purpose bullets: armor-piercing, tracer, armor-piercing incendiary, etc. These bullets have identification markings on the head. The domestic industry produces three types of shot (OM, OT, ST — according to the degree of hardness of the alloy) and hunting buckshot (KO). Shot is differentiated by numbers (from 11 to 1 and from 0 to 0000) depending on the diameter size (from 1.50 to 5.0 mm). Buckshot has no numbers and differs only in diameter (from 5.25 to 10.00 mm). Wads and gaskets are also used to load hunting cartridges. Wads (main and additional) are made of felt, fiberboard, covered with paper. These wads are usually salted. There are also polyethylene wads with concentrators for placing shot in them and without them.

N2. The mechanism of formation of traces of a shot

In some models of weapons the chambers are made separately from the barrels: in rifles, carbines — in the receiver, in revolvers — in the drum. The section of the barrel with the chamber is called the breech, opposite — the muzzle. In rifled weapons the bore has recesses — rifling, made in a helical shape with a right or left slope. In the rifling it is necessary to distinguish between the bottom and the edges. Of the two edges, one is called driven or blank, the other — leading or combat. The surface areas between the rifling are usually called lands. The caliber of a weapon is the diameter of the bore, measured (with an accuracy of 0.01 mm) between the lands. The most common weapons of calibers are 5.45, 5.6, 6.35, 7.62, 7.63, 7.65, 9 and 11.43 mm. Of the smoothbore guns, the most common are 12, 16, 20, 24 and 32 caliber guns (these are conventional designations corresponding to the number of ball bullets with a diameter equal to the diameter of the barrel bore, which can be cast from a pound of — 485.5 g of lead). In the mechanism of formation of traces on a bullet, a part of the gun barrel called the bullet entrance is of significant importance, which is a transition section from the chamber to the rifled part. Analysis of traces on a bullet allows us to distinguish three stages in the mechanism of formation of traces of a shot: a) entry of the bullet into the bullet entrance; b) cutting of the bullet shell into the rifling; c) translational-rotational movement of the bullet along the barrel bore. The first contact of the bullet with the bullet entrance occurs at the boundary of its cylindrical surface with the head part. If the bullet shell is unfolded into a plane, then it is possible to trace the level of the beginning of the traces. With a rectilinear movement of the bullet at the moment of firing from the mouth of the cartridge case to the bullet entrance, the level of the beginning of the traces will be constant relative to the bottom of the bullet. But due to various reasons (uneven gas pressure or compression of the bullet in the cartridge case), the bullet axis may not coincide with the barrel axis, and the level of the beginning of the traces in this regard will look like a broken line. Since the actual diameter of the bullets of standard cartridges is slightly larger than the internal diameter of the barrel bore, the bullet, under the action of gases, cuts into the rifling with its shell. The bullet meets the beginning of the rifling in the barrel with its leading (cylindrical) part. Here its movement is almost rectilinear, therefore the traces-traces from the edges of the rifling and the irregularities of the bullet entrance go parallel to the bullet axis. These are the primary traces. They are located in areas near the traces from the blank edge. The sizes of these areas are different.

After the bullet enters the rifling with its shell, its movement along the barrel bore becomes translational-rotational. Traces from the lands, rifling and their edges appear on its surface. These are secondary traces. They are inclined in relation to the bullet axis and partially overlap the primary ones. When examining traces on a bullet, the dimensional data of not only the bullet itself are taken into account, but also the width of the rifling lands, their depth and angle of inclination. Attention is paid to the transverse profile of the traces, which allows us to judge the degree of wear of the weapon barrel bore. The degree of expression of the above traces, their number and dimensional data — all these are general signs of traces on bullets. Specific, individualizing features are contained in microtraces, in their mutual arrangement in relation to the traces of the rifling edges. The general features of traces on a bullet determine the model or a narrower group of weapons from which the bullet under study was fired; the specific ones — its specific specimen. Bullet marks are of great importance for solving practical problems. The durability of bullet marks, if assessed on average, is quite high. For shell bullets under normal firing conditions, it is practically unlimited. Lead projectiles require more careful attention in this regard. Shot marks (buckshot). Recent practice knows many examples of successful identification of smooth-bore hunting rifles by marks not only on bullets, but also on shot. Shot (buckshot) is a multiple projectile made of an easily deformed lead alloy, so working with such objects requires caution and certain skills. Shot fired from a smooth-bore gun mainly displays two types of marks: static marks — from the interaction of pellets with each other and dynamic marks — from the inner surface of the barrel bore. Static marks (or contact spots) look like round dents. They are formed as a result of pellet compression under the action of powder gases when the cartridge case has not yet opened. Two or four such traces can be found on pellets. Two dents are formed on pellets that were in the upper and lower rows in the cartridge case. Sometimes such a dent is as if double — this is the result of repeated compression of pellets in the barrel bore. On the pellets of the lower row, imprints of the wad can be observed.

— deposits of gunshot products in the form of: a) zones of soot (metal) or gunpowder grain deposits; b) abrasion belts (along the edges of the bullet hole) or traces of sliding of a bullet flying at an angle; c) grease stains (if the barrel bore was lubricated). Various parameters of the specified manifestations of a shot, recorded using various scientific and technical means (zone sizes, degree of intensity or concentration of products in the area of damage, etc.), are signs, the combination of which allows solving various forensic problems. In damage from projectiles, it is necessary to distinguish between input and output holes. They differ in shape, size, presence (or absence) of gunshot products around them. The shape of this damage is due to a number of factors, but most often the shape of the input holes resembles the shape of the projectile. Since the projectile has a higher speed when meeting an obstacle than after passing through it, it initially knocks out part of the obstacle, pushing it forward in the direction of the shot. As a result, after the edges of the entry holes are brought together, a portion of the tissue is usually missing («minus tissue»). A rubbing belt with a diameter close to the diameter of the projectile remains from the tight contact of the projectile with the material at the entrance. (The rubbing belt may be absent if the shot was fired during rain). The main products of the shot are found in the area of the entry holes. In some cases, when the weapon comes into contact with the object, the topography of the shot products reproduces the shape of the muzzle of the weapon («punch mark»). The exit holes are usually larger in size, their edges are turned outward. At the exit, the products of the shot are usually absent, only sometimes metals included in the projectile are found on the inside of the object (from the inside). Gunshot wounds can be penetrating or tangential, through or blind. As a result of the penetration of projectiles into a three-dimensional object, a bullet (wound) channel is formed. In specialized literature, damage from shells is called primary, and all the rest are called additional traces of the shot.

N 3. Inspection of firearms and traces of shots

The detection and seizure of objects of forensic ballistic examination may take place during various events and investigative actions (for example, during a search, seizure, the success of which to a certain extent depends on knowledge of the tricks of criminals to conceal weapons and ammunition). But the main investigative action to detect evidence of the use of firearms is the inspection of the scene of the incident. It is recommended that such an inspection be carried out with the participation of a specialist in the field of forensic ballistics. Before leaving for the scene of the incident, measures must be taken to protect it and prevent the theft of weapons, the presence of which is not excluded there. If an open area is to be inspected, the protocol must reflect information on weather conditions (humidity, rain, temperature, wind, its strength, direction). During the inspection of the scene of the incident, one must try to find initial data to resolve the following issues:
a) was a firearm actually used;
b) what weapons and ammunition were used;
c) what objects bear traces of a shot;
d) the direction and distance of the shot;
d) the probable location of the shooter;
e) is suicide excluded;
g) under what circumstances did the shot occur, was it the result of a dropped weapon, blows (shot without pulling the trigger).

Similar signs can be observed on human skin. If the entry wound is on an open part of the body, it is necessary, without undressing the corpse, to measure the distance from it to the edge of the clothing on the side of the shot. This will allow a more objective determination of the indicators of the zone of deposition of the products of the shot to resolve the issue of the distance. It is necessary to pay attention to the nature of the stains, blood streaks on the clothes, body and around the corpse. This helps to determine the position of the human body at the time of the shot and the relative time of its stay in a certain position. If there are signs of a close shot, as well as if a weapon or a device for releasing the trigger from the hands is found near the corpse, swabs should be made. For this, take three cotton swabs of the same size, moistened in a 7% solution of nitric acid (or in alcohol). The hands of the deceased are wiped with two swabs, and the third remains clean for control. All swabs are packed separately in clean containers with appropriate inscriptions. Laboratory testing of these swabs will help establish (or rule out) the fact that the shooting was carried out by the deceased himself.

The corpse should be undressed on a flat surface, spreading out a white sheet or oilcloth for this purpose. Often, a bullet, having pierced a person's body, remains under the clothes, so it is necessary to examine them, but in order to avoid changing the picture of the traces of the shot, do not shake them under any circumstances. The area with a gunshot wound must be covered from the outside and inside with a clean white cloth measuring 25×25 cm, and in the case of shots at a slight angle to the surface of the body or more (when shooting from a pistol from a distance of, for example, 30 cm and at an angle of 15 degrees, the soot zone is found at a distance of 24-27 cm from the beginning of the bullet hole). When shooting at an angle, the damage often has an atypical shape (resembles a rupture with a sharp object).

Inspection of holes.

The morphological characteristics of bullet holes are to a certain extent determined by the structure and quality of the barrier material. For most objects, entry gunshot wounds are characterized by relatively smooth edges, drawn inward, and the presence of a rubbing belt.

Exit holes are usually larger in size, their edges are uneven, turned outward. Bullet channels along the entire length, as a rule, are of the same diameter, if the bullet did not receive deformation upon meeting the barrier.

The exception is damage to glass (and similar materials) that have a conical shape, as well as radial and concentric (arc) cracks around the hole. The inner surface of glass fractures receives a peculiar wavy relief in the form of bundles of tracks.

These tracks in radial cracks expand in the direction of the bullet's flight, in concentric ones — vice versa. The dimensions of the holes in the glass are larger than the caliber of the bullets.

When shots are fired from close range and at an angle, significant destruction of the glass occurs.

Fragments of glass, as well as other materials, fall from the side opposite the shot.

For transportation, glass fragments, arranged according to their configuration, can be glued to a sheet of white paper or transparent film.

On the side of the shot, soot can be found on the glass, the study of which will allow the shot distance to be determined.

In case of significant glass damage, the center of the bullet hole is determined by continuing the radial lines, their intersection point will indicate the desired center.

The shape of bullet damage in wood is affected by the degree of humidity; its increase leads to a narrowing of the holes, down to slit-like ones.

In the area of the exit holes on the wood, chips are often observed in the direction of the bullet exit.

Only factual information is entered into the crime scene inspection report.

First, the shot-through object is characterized as a whole, indicating on which side the damage is located.

The location of the damage is oriented relative to the floor (ground) and two other permanent parts of the object. If there is more than one damage, the distances between them are also indicated.

If possible, the signs of the origin and mechanism of damage formation are described, established visually, by measurement and other non-destructive methods.

Depending on the required measurement accuracy, a tape measure, ruler, or caliper are used.

Firearm bullet damage is first measured completely, including ruptures, then the hole itself is measured, the abrasion belt is measured by the outer diameter.

Bullet damage of a round shape is measured by diameter, square or rectangular — by the length of the sides, oval — by the length of two axes.

Shot pattern is also measured in two ways — the total area of dispersion and the central area without the inclusion of far-flung pellets — by the length of two axes or diameter.

If an incomplete pattern is found on an object, the main indicator is the density of dispersion, i.e. the number of pellets per 1 cm.

It is easy to record the density of the shot pattern using tracing paper and a sharpened match. When placing the tracing paper on graph paper, it is easy to determine the area and number of hits.

A type of non-penetrating gunshot damage is ricochet marks, which appear as dents or skid marks. A narrower and smoother section of the mark indicates where the bullet came from.

An examination of gunshot wounds at the scene of a crime allows us to put forward versions of the circumstances of the shot and take the necessary steps to find other material evidence.

When searching for data on the model of a weapon, it is necessary to pay attention to the nature of the main damage (bullet hole, shot pattern), its size, the shape of the powder grains, the topography of the soot deposit, and the shape of the «punch mark», if any.

The distance of the shot can be judged by the presence (absence) of cross-shaped ruptures, the size of the damage (shot pattern), and the presence (absence) of accompanying products of the shot.

It should be borne in mind that the products of a shot can also be detected when shooting from long distances, when a bullet, having penetrated one obstacle, carries away a certain amount of products, which are deposited on the second obstacle being hit (the «Vinogradov phenomenon»).

This means that it is first necessary to determine whether this obstacle is the first.

The direction of the shot is determined by damage to the tissue, wound (bullet) channels, along the line connecting the entry and exit holes, as well as two damages from one shot on different objects.

Following in the established direction, when shooting from a short distance, you can reach the location of the shooter.

Special devices (for example, a theodolite) can be used to determine the direction.

Simpler techniques — probing with wooden, plastic rods or sighting (observation) with paper tubes.

Detection and removal of shells.

The importance of shells as material evidence is obvious.

At the scene of the incident, it is first necessary to determine how many shots were fired and to search for all shells.

The search for shells in the case of through and tangential damage begins in the direction established during the study of these objects.

All objects along this path, soil, snow, etc., are subject to careful inspection.

If the preliminary examination does not establish reliable data on the type of projectile, attention should be paid to all pieces of metal, no matter what shape they are. The projectile may be deformed.

Pieces of the bullet shell may remain in the body or fall nearby, and the core may fly some distance.

Bullets may ricochet, then the direction of their search should be changed at an angle approximately equal to the angle of the bullet's impact with the obstacle.

In the case of blind damage, if the object cannot be removed entirely, they resort to sawing out (cutting out) part of the object with the projectile.

The size of the area to be removed is determined by the size of the areas where the products of the shot have been deposited. However, before this, it is advisable to record the center of the bullet hole for possible restoration. The outer, inner surfaces, top, and bottom are marked on the piece of the obstacle to be removed.

When performing these actions, it is important not to damage the traces of the shot on the object and on the projectile.

Lead projectiles should be handled with particular care. It is worth emphasizing here that when shooting with shot, all pellets should be removed from the corpse. The amount of information important for solving identification problems depends on this.

The search for projectiles is more successful using a metal detector, a portable X-ray machine. As bullets are found, they are assigned a number, which is indicated on the crime scene diagram and on the packaging.

It is necessary to take care to preserve foreign particles that may be on the bullet (powder grains, fibers, blood).

These objects can shed light on some of the circumstances of the shot.

The bullet inspection report notes:

a) shape;

b) design features — jacketed, semi-jacketed, unjacketed: presence of a tail section, grooves, nature of the base;

c) metal color:

d) size — length, diameter:

e) bullet fastening method — punching, segmental or circular crimping:

e) marking designation -a head or base part in the form of digital, letter designations or special coloring; g) presence and nature of deformation;

h) traces — the barrel bore (the presence of traces of rifling fields, their number and direction, width, severity, angle of inclination, smoked bullet, etc.).

The discovered bullets are packed separately.

The shot charge extracted from the corpse is dried (not washed) and packed between two layers of cotton wool.

The protocol entry indicates the number of pellets, their shape, diameter, as well as the nature of the traces on them.

When shooting with hunting cartridges, wads and spacers may be found.

In addition to the indications of the place of their discovery, the following information is noted in the protocol:
a) about the material of the object:
b) about the shape and size;
c) about the markings;
d) about the traces of the shot on them.

If homemade wads in the form of lumps of paper or fabric are found, they must be unfolded over a sheet of paper to establish the characteristic features, which are also recorded in the protocol.

The side surface of felt wads should be carefully examined to detect traces of cutting.

If the latter are present, a search for the tool should be organized on the persons being checked.

Detection and removal of cartridges. The solution to the issue of the location of spent cartridges largely depends on the type of weapon used.

Most models of hunting weapons do not automatically eject cartridges, so the location of their discovery is not yet an indicator of the place where the shot was fired.

The same situation occurs when using revolvers.

But in some cases, the cartridge case may not be ejected from an automatic pistol.

One of the reasons for this is the grip of the pistol by hand during the shot, as a result of which the cartridge case is clamped in the window of the breech block.

The starting indicators for determining the direction of searching for automatic weapon cartridges are data on the angle of the projectile's impact with the obstacle, the firing distance, and the weapon model, since cartridges are ejected differently from different weapons. If data on a relatively close firing distance is established, it is advisable to look for traces of the shooter (footprints, cigarette butts, etc.).

Then, using them as a guide, outline the area to search for cartridges. It is important to remember that a flying cartridge case can ricochet when it hits an object — change direction.

It is advisable to use a metal detector, and, if necessary, — wash the soil, melt snow.

These operations are carried out in strictly defined areas.

Of course, the reverse order is also possible, when the cartridge case is first found, and then, taking into account the model of the weapon and the location of the shot object, the location of the shooter can be determined.

The locations of the cartridge cases are sequentially marked with numbers, with these indicators entered into the protocol and diagram.

The cartridge cases are photographed using the method of large-scale photography.

It is possible that fingerprints may be found on the cartridge case, so the cartridge case should be taken by the edge of the mouth and the bottom for inspection.

It is not advisable to insert any object, such as paper, into the cavity of the cartridge case, since some of the gaseous products of the shot may be displaced (this will interfere with resolving the issue of how old the shot was) and the traces of the row on the inner surface of the cartridge case, by which the type of projectile can be determined, may be damaged. In particular, this applies to paper cartridges of hunting cartridges, since they are disposable.

In order to be able to resolve the issue of the shot's age, if the cartridge case cannot be delivered to the expert within 6 hours, one of the following methods for preserving the state of gaseous products must be used.
1. Recording the state of these products using an indicator tube with a filler sensitive to nitrogen oxides and an aspirator.
To do this, both ends of the tube are broken off and inserted into the sleeve, the other (with the arrow) into the aspirator. Air is sucked in for 15 minutes, after which the filter color level is recorded on the scale on the tube or on the ruler.
1. Preservation of gaseous products.
To do this, the sleeve, pre-packed in a reliable rubber fingertip, the free end of which is tightly tied, is placed in the freezer of the refrigerator for 7 hours.

The sleeve is transported in a thermos filled with pieces of any ice.

Moreover, the cartridge case is not unpacked, and the thermos is kept in the freezer for 3 hours before that.

In this condition, the safety of the products you shot is guaranteed for 24 hours.

The inspection report of the cartridge cases notes:

a) shape — cylindrical, bottle, conical;
b) design features of the bottom part — flanged, flangeless, with annular groove (or without it), for a primer of a central strike, side strike; c) color of the material;
d) dimensions — length, diameters of the muzzle (internal) and flange;
d) markings;
e) method of attaching the bullet:
g) traces of the shot, loading, ejection;
h) nature of deformation.

Cartridges, as well as wads and gaskets, are packed in the same way as bullets.

N 4. Forensic Ballistics Examination

Forensic ballistics examination is often ordered in cases involving the use of firearms.

Expert studies are conducted to solve identification and non-identification problems.

The formulations of identification problems are quite varied.

For example: what system (model, type) does this firearm belong to; what system (model, type) of weapon was used to fire the bullet (casing) found at the scene of the crime; what manufacturer do the cartridges (bullets, shot, casings) belong to; was the bullet (casing, shot, etc.) fired from this particular weapon; were the sawn-off shotgun and part of the barrel previously part of a single hunting rifle; were the cartridge used at the scene of the crime and the cartridges seized from a specific person related to the same source of origin.

Specialists from various fields of knowledge (chemistry, physics, biology, forensic ballistics) are involved in the study of components of hunting cartridges.

In this case, attention is paid primarily to the morphological features of each of the components (traces of tools, forms, special methods of equipment), the combination of which allows us to narrow the circle of persons being checked or to indicate the only possible source of origin.

If such information is insufficient, the study is transferred to the sphere of material properties of objects.

Identification ballistic studies are carried out using various methods and technical means.

Stereoscopic (MBS-1, MBS-2), biological (MBR-1, MBR-3, MBI-Z) microscopes are used for microscopic studies; in addition to contact action instruments, instrumental microscopes MMI-1, MIM-7 are used to measure various parameters of ballistic objects.

The study of the profile of various traces is carried out using profilographic methods: probe profiling (profilographs models 201 or 997), epic (Linnik double microscope MIS-11), photoelectric (microphotometer MF-4).

Microphotography is also widely used with the help of universal cameras or special photo attachments for microphotography.

Comparative analysis of forensic ballistic objects is carried out in various forms.

When solving problems on determining group affiliation, such sources of information as classifications, scientific reference books, and natural collections are used for comparison. Another form of comparison is comparison with experimental samples obtained using objects of the same group affiliation with the object under study.

The procedure for establishing group affiliation always precedes individual identification.

Only after making sure that the two bullets being examined, for example, were fired from a weapon of the same caliber and from a barrel of the same design and degree of wear, can one begin to compare traces of the shot.

If an examination to identify a weapon (especially a homemade one) is appointed with a large gap in time from the moment of the event being investigated, it is necessary to find out and inform the expert in what conditions it was stored, whether shots were fired from it and how many.

This will help to correctly evaluate the coincidences, as well as the differences in identification features.

Ballistic studies resort to traditional technical methods of comparison. These are: comparison, alignment, superposition.

The following are mandatory conditions for comparison:

a) strictly identical lighting and the same magnification scale of the images of the objects being studied;

b) comparison of identical traces.

The lighting should be identical not only in power, but also in location relative to objects.

Identical traces are traces of the same weapon part, the same surface.

For example, to conduct a comparative analysis of traces on two bullets, it is necessary to establish paired traces of the rifling fields.

This is achieved by precise measurements (up to 0.01 mm) using special microscopes of the width of all rifling fields (since these values can be different even for one barrel) and orientation by any one expressive unique feature — the track.

Identification ballistic studies are aimed at establishing the subject of a crime by determining the type of weapon or the source of origin of objects. The results of non-identification studies, as a rule, help to reveal the objective, and in some cases, the subjective side of the crime.

The range of issues addressed in this case is very large.

They can be divided into five groups:
1. Determining the condition of firearms and ammunition. This includes, for example, questions about the serviceability and fitness for firing of weapons and ammunition, the penetrating ability of a projectile, the age of a shot, etc.
It should be noted that the question of serviceability can only be raised in relation to factory-made weapons, not homemade ones.

Homemade weapons are studied to determine their suitability for firing and the penetrating ability of a projectile fired from this weapon.

An independent question about the penetrating ability of a projectile can be objectively resolved taking into account a certain specified firing distance.
1. Establishing the circumstances under which certain actions occurred.
This is a group of tasks to determine the firing distance, direction, relative position of the weapon and the obstacle (shot through object) at the moment of firing, the order of formation of gunshot wounds or firing of bullets, etc.

Often the tasks of this group are solved by complex studies involving specialists in the field of forensic ballistics, chemistry, physics, and in cases of murder or injury of a person — and forensic medicine.

Questions about the order of firing can be positively resolved if the barrel bore was lubricated before the shot.

When appointing such an examination, it is advisable to provide the expert with a sample of oil.

The question of the relative position of the weapon and the victim at the moment of firing always presupposes a preliminary solution to the questions of the distance and direction of the shot.

The success of resolving these questions largely depends on the completeness of the information and materials provided by the investigation to the expert.

Expert examinations must be conducted in conditions as close as possible to the conditions of the shot at the scene of the incident.

Therefore, in addition to the necessary investigative documents (records of the scene inspection, interrogations of witnesses or the suspect), material evidence, clothing from the corpse, similar ammunition or specific information about their equipment and weapons must be presented for examination.
1. Establishing the possibility of performing certain actions.
Namely: is it possible to fire a shot from a given weapon without pulling the trigger; is aimed shooting possible from a specific weapon (homemade); is it possible for the victim to fire a shot from a given weapon, etc.

When asking the first question, it is important that the initial data include specific conditions of the shot at the scene of the incident, recorded in the protocols of the inspection of the scene of the incident, interrogation of the suspect or witnesses.
1. Determination of the method and causes of damage, micro-layers.
Approximate wording of questions in this group: are the injuries caused by gunshots; what is the cause of the deformation of the bullet (casing, weapon); have the markings been destroyed; are the pockets contaminated by carrying a weapon, etc.
1. Establishing the mechanism of certain actions and the formation of traces.
The questions in this group are interconnected with the questions in the previous group.

Often, when determining the causes of traces and damage, it is necessary to establish the mechanism of their formation.

However, questions about the mechanism of certain actions may have independent significance.

For example: what is the mechanism of a gun breakage; what interaction of the parts of a given homemade weapon makes it possible to fire a shot: etc.

The following stages can be noted in the process of expert examination of ballistic objects:
a) preparatory:
b) separate study:
c) experiment;
d) comparative analysis:
e) evaluation of the results obtained and formulation of conclusions.

The purpose of the preparatory stage is to check the condition of the packaging, the compliance of the objects of study with their characteristics set out in the investigative documents, the assimilation of the tasks set, the preparation of the technical base, in particular, the selection of material and cartridges necessary for conducting experimental shooting.

At the second stage, all objects under study are separately studied, as well as samples presented by the investigator, most often these are items seized from suspects: cartridges, individual elements of their equipment, spent cartridges.

Identification features (general and specific), sets of features inherent to each object or group of objects are established.

At this stage, possible conditions under which a shot was fired at the scene of the incident can be established.

Experimental samples for ballistic research are in most cases obtained during the examination.

But obtaining these samples does not exhaust the task of the third stage — to establish the factors influencing the mechanism of trace formation, the degree of expression of signs, and other circumstances.

An important condition for obtaining experimental samples is the use of cartridges similar to those used at the scene of the incident, and material identical to the material of the shot object.

The experimental part of the study is absent only in those cases when the solution of the problem is completed by comparison with reference data.

Comparative analysis in ballistic studies is carried out according to the usual scheme: first, general features are compared, then specific ones.

When comparing, coincidences of features are established, differences are revealed

The reasons and conditions for the formation of both coincidences and differences are determined. Morphological features, i.e. shape, size, features of the surface structure of objects, are of great importance in comparative research, on the totality of which conclusions about identity are most often based.

Evaluation activity is inherent not only to the final stage, it permeates all stages of expert research.

Both individual features and their combinations are evaluated.

In addition, the effectiveness of the methods used is also evaluated.

As a result, the stability of all features is determined, the individuality and uniqueness of their combination is assessed, and the reasons for differences, if any, are explained.

In forensic ballistic examinations, in addition to the above methods, the following are used:

— inspection and photography in invisible rays of the spectrum (for example, UV rays for detecting grease, sediment, IR rays — gunshot soot, X-rays and gamma rays — when examining metal objects);

— various chemical methods (in particular, diffusion-copying — DCM or color print method — for recording and studying metallization zones in the area of gunshot damage or on objects that were in contact with weapons, thin-layer chromatography in combination with reflective spectrophotometry — for gunpowder and its combustion products);

— spectral (quantitative emission analysis — ESA, atomic absorption — AAA, neutron activation — NAD, polarography, etc.), which are used to determine the quantitative content of individual elements included in the components of cartridge equipment or shot products, mathematical methods — as an integral part of methods based on the use of physical methods, as well as independent ones, for example, when determining the distance of a long shot.

The sequence of application of methods is of great importance in the research methodology.

First of all, non-destructive methods are used, then partially destructive ones, and lastly — methods that lead to the destruction of objects, for which experts must obtain the consent of the person who appointed the examination.

CHAPTER XIII TECHNICAL AND FORENSIC EXAMINATION OF DOCUMENTS

N 1. Concept and tasks of technical and forensic examination of documents

A document is defined as a material data carrier (paper, film and photographic film, magnetic tape, punch card, etc.) with information recorded on it, intended for its transmission in time and space (film and photographic materials, phonograms on magnetic tapes are beyond the scope of forensic examination of documents).

Documents can be classified on various grounds

Forensic examination may be applied to official documents (issued by government agencies and enterprises, public and cooperative organizations) and unofficial documents (issued by individuals);

— with a known source of origin (having a signature and other details) and anonymous documents (without a signature or with a fictitious signature);

— executed in various ways — by hand, on a typewriter, typographically, etc.

According to their purpose, these may be documents certifying any rights or facts, and documents containing any specific information. According to the order of origin, documents are divided into originals and copies. A copy is an exact reproduction of the original in its content.

Such components and features of the original document as the composition of the paper, the ink of the text and the imprint of the seal, the mutual arrangement of the printed characters, their design and size in the typographic form are not displayed in the copy.

Therefore, the possibilities of forensic examination of copies of documents — material evidence are limited.

They may contain signs of so-called intellectual forgery, that is, forgery in content.

Signs of material forgery of the original (erasures, additions, unspecified corrections, replacement of a photograph, etc.) are not reflected in the copy.

Depending on the classification characteristics and type of document, the expert may be faced with various tasks during its examination.

If the researcher is interested in the author or performer of the document, a study of the letter (written speech and handwriting) is conducted, but if the interest is in the technical side of the document's production (the paper used, glue, ink, typewriter, printing equipment, etc.) — a technical and forensic examination. Original documents — material evidence, not copies, should be presented for a technical and forensic examination.

Technical and forensic examination is carried out with the purpose of establishing signs of alteration of the original text of a document, restoring flooded, crossed out texts, torn, burned documents, identifying signs of technical forgery of signatures, seals and stamps, determining the system and specific type of typewriter on which the text under examination was printed, the type of printing equipment used in the production of the document.

When examining, recording, studying documents — material evidence and when using them in the process of investigative actions, the investigator, inquiry officer, expert (specialist) must observe certain general rules for handling them.

The documents being studied must be preserved unchanged.

When reviewing documents, no resolutions, instructions or similar inscriptions are allowed on them; during inspection and examination, words, expressions or signs must not be underlined with pencil or ink or pricked with a hard, sharp object: when using invisible spectrum rays during inspection and examination, the document must not be irradiated with them for a long time, as this may entail changes in the physical properties of the document material.

Documents — material evidence must not be filed in a case.

It is recommended to store them in a separate envelope of the appropriate size.

The document may be folded only along the existing folds. Old and torn documents for storage and use during investigative actions should be placed between glass or transparent celluloid plates.

When sending documents, they are packed in thick envelopes between sheets of clean paper so that they are not punctured, stitched with threads, stained or soiled with glue or sealing wax.

When working with documents, it should be borne in mind that they may contain some traces (for example, of hands), microparticles of foreign substances, the smell of the manufacturer.

Therefore, they must be handled in such a way as to preserve them for the appropriate forensic examinations. Documents that come into the orbit of the investigation must be examined and recorded for the case. The purpose of the examination is to individualize the document, to record its condition, to identify possible signs of forgery.

The document can be examined during the inspection of the scene of the incident or as an independent investigative action.

The inspection begins with determining the name, type, purpose of the document and familiarization with its content.

At the same time, the correspondence of the content to other details of the document is established — the corner stamp of the organization, institution, signatures, seal, date of issue.

Inconsistency of any data of the constituent parts of the document may indicate the presence of intellectual forgery — the issuance of the document by the wrong body, the granting of improper rights, etc.

Further attention is drawn to signs of material counterfeiting — erasures, etching, additions, replacement of sheets in multi-page documents, etc.

In this case, the necessary technical means are used — special illuminators that allow viewing the document in shadowless, directional lighting, in transmission, in ultraviolet, infrared rays, electron-optical and magnifying devices, measuring instruments.

The inspection results are recorded in the inspection report, drawn up in accordance with the criminal procedure law.

It indicates the name of the document, its registration number, date of issue, on behalf of which institution and in whose name it was issued, what details it is certified with, the size of the document, the nature of the edges, the presence of folds, tears, stains and dirt, the characteristics of the paper, dye, signs of forgery and material counterfeiting revealed during the inspection.

As an additional method of recording, photography can be performed according to the rules of forensic photography of the place where the document was found, its general appearance and individual features.

If necessary, the document may be examined with the participation of a forensic expert or a specialist in another professional field, depending on the type and purpose of the document being examined, and also using as a standard the original documents issued by the relevant government agencies or public organizations on whose behalf the document being examined was issued.

N 2. Identifying signs of document forgery

Documents may be forged completely or partially.

Complete forgery includes the production or selection of all components of the document: paper, form, handwritten text, identification means (signatures, seals, stamps).

Documents produced in a primitive way on blank sheets of paper (certificates, certificates, IDs) are most often subject to complete forgery.

Less often, documents produced by typographic methods with various protective properties (background grids, etc.) are completely forged. In case of complete forgery, documents are produced according to corresponding samples (copies of genuine documents).

However, since no absolutely exact forgery is possible, in the process of producing forged documents they acquire some distinctive features (differences from the original), allowing the forgery to be recognized.

Partial forgery consists of making individual changes to the original document.

Such changes are made by:

1) erasure:

2) chemical etching of text:

3) before writing, additional printing, correction of text;

4) replacement of parts of the document (photographs, sheets in multi-page documents);

5) forgery of signatures, seal impressions and stamps. Each of these methods has its own identifying signs of forgery. Signs of erasure.

Erasure involves mechanically removing part of the text (usually individual letters, numbers, strokes) by erasing with an eraser or scraping with a sharp object (a razor blade, knife, etc.).

This damages the surface layer of the paper, part of which is removed along with the text being erased.

Signs of erasure are: ruffled fibers of the surface layer of paper, change in the gloss of the paper surface, decrease in the thickness of the paper in the place of erasure, disruption of the background grid (as a result of erasure along with the text strokes), ink bleeds of the new text applied to the erased place, remnants of dye from the strokes of the erased text.

Sometimes, to mask the erasure, the erased section of the document is smoothed, «varnished» with some hard object, the lines of the background grid are drawn in.

For the same purposes, a continuous outline of the entire text of the document can be made.

Signs of outlining (double strokes of text) in themselves in this case raise doubts about the authenticity of such a document and require further more thorough examination.

Detection of signs of erasure is carried out by examining the document in normal diffuse, oblique, transmitted (through) lighting, in ultraviolet and infrared rays, using magnifying glasses of various magnifications and a microscope.

Restoration of the original text is possible by photographing in invisible zones of the spectrum, in oblique light, with light filters, and also by using the diffusion-copying method.

Signs of chemical etching.

During chemical etching, the text of the document is completely or partially bleached or washed away by some chemical reagent (acid, alkali).

The chemical substance affects not only the text being destroyed, but also other components of the document (paper, background mesh, etc.).

Signs of chemical etching are: changes in the shade of the paper (most often in the form of a yellow spot), smudging of ink strokes of the new text due to a violation of the sizing of the paper, a change in the color of the background grid, a weakening of the intensity of the color of ink strokes of the new text as a result of the effect of the etching substance remaining in the thickness of the paper, brittleness, fragility of the paper when etching with concentrated reagents.

Signs of chemical etching can be detected using optical magnifying devices, light filters, and oblique lighting.

Etched areas, without visible signs under normal lighting, may acquire a fluorescent color under ultraviolet rays.

Restoration of etched text can be achieved by photographing with light filters, shooting ultraviolet, red and infrared luminescence.

Signs of additions, additional printing and corrections (changes) to the text.

Handwritten additions and additional printing on a typewriter are made by the forger in order to change the information contained in the document.

As a rule, they are small in volume, but are capable of significantly changing the original data.

Most often, by adding words, letters, numbers, and sometimes individual strokes, the amount in statements, invoices and receipts, the date in the execution of the document, the name of its owner, etc. are changed.

For adding, ink is usually selected that is the same color as the main text, a typewriter with a ribbon close in color intensity of the dye.

The main signs of the completed addition are differences in the general and specific features of handwriting in the compared parts of the text (size of letters, acceleration of handwriting, thickness of strokes, signs of slowness of movements, stops in the completed letters).

In addition, there may be blurring of ink strokes made along the folds (bends) of the document, differences in the color shades of the dye of the strokes.

Signs of additional printing on a typewriter are discrepancies in the horizontal arrangement of printed characters in a line, differences in the size and design of identical printed characters, differences in the color of the ribbon dye, and, finally, differences in font defects if the additional printing was done on a different typewriter.

In the corrected (changed) written characters, doubled, thickened strokes, and unnecessary elements remaining from the previous character are observed. Sometimes these unnecessary elements are erased after the forgery has been made, as a result of which signs of mechanical erasure also appear.

Additions, additional printing, corrections (changes) to the text are detected using optical magnifying devices, light filters, ultraviolet and infrared rays, by studying the chemical composition of dyes using spectral analysis, chromatography, etc.

Signs of replacement of parts of a document.

When forging documents, photographs, sheets, and document numbers can be replaced.

Photographs are replaced in identity documents.

Technically, it can be implemented in various ways in its entirety, leaving the part with the imprint of the seal, separating the emulsion layer.

On the re-glued photographic card, by drawing on and applying pressure, the missing parts of the imprints of the mastic and metal seals are put in place.

Signs of a photograph being re-glued include peeling of the surface layer of paper at the edges of the photograph, the presence of two types of glue under and around the photograph, mismatch in content, size and pattern of the letters of the text in the stamp impression on the photograph and the document paper, absence of a break in the stamp impression at the edge of the photograph on the paper.

When replacing sheets in multi-page documents, differences in size, color shade, cut line, mismatch of puncture sites with staples (extra holes at the fold), page numbering order, series and document number may be observed between the inserted sheets.

Using ultraviolet rays can reveal differences in the luminescence of the paper and the dye of the text strokes.

Some documents (mainly loan bonds, lottery tickets) are pasted with fragments of other similar documents in order to change the series and numbers.

Such forgery is revealed by examination under a microscope, against the light and in ultraviolet rays by mismatches of the lines of the protective background grid, uneven paper thickness, frayed paper and traces of glue along the edges of the paste.

Signs of technical forgery of a signature.

Signatures in a document can be forged in various ways by imitating (simulating) the genuine signature of the person on whose behalf it is made, or by copying using technical means.

The imitation of a signature and its executor (forger) are established by a handwriting examination by means of a comparative study of the questionable (disputed) signature with samples of the signature and handwriting of the person suspected of forgery. Forgery of a signature using technical means is established by a technical and forensic examination of the document.

When forgery is carried out using technical means in order to bring the forged signature closer to the genuine one, it is carried out with preliminary preparation, carried out in one of the following ways: the forger copies the genuine signature onto the document through carbon paper, draws it with a pencil or presses it against the light.

Then the signature applied in this way is outlined with ink or ballpoint pen paste.

A forged signature can be visually identified by the presence of partially uncovered preparatory strokes located next to the outline strokes, by signs of slow movements in the outline strokes (breaks, underdrawing, stops, blunt ends of strokes).

When examining a signature in infrared rays using an electron-optical converter, the outline strokes applied with aniline ink or ballpoint pen paste are removed and the preparatory strokes with a pencil or through carbon paper are visible underneath them.

Preparation by pressure is revealed by the presence of double, partially mismatched strokes of outline and pressure.

If documents with genuine signatures of the person on whose behalf the disputed signature was made are found on the suspect, by comparing them by superimposing and examining them against the light, a specific signature can be found that was used as a sample when performing the forgery.

Signs of forgery of seal and stamp impressions.

Some documents are required to be issued with seals and stamps of the appropriate form and content.

Seals and stamps are manufactured by specialized enterprises in compliance with certain requirements.

Text lines are typed in a font of the same size and design, with equal intervals, with a symmetrical arrangement in relation to the dividing marks, text or design (for example, a coat of arms) in the inner frame.

All letters of the text are arranged strictly radially in relation to the center.

In cases of primitive forgery, deviations from these rules may be observed.

Impressions of seals and stamps are forged by drawing, making a cliche on rubber or other materials, wet copying from an authentic impression, recopying through an intermediate cliche.

Forgery of a print by drawing entails the appearance of such signs as a puncture of the paper in the center of the print of a round seal with the leg of a compass, if it was used to apply the frame, non-uniformity in size and design of letters of the same name, non-radial arrangement of individual letters of the text and their asymmetrical arrangement in relation to the dividing marks, text or design in the inner frame.

In a print forged in this way, spelling and semantic errors may also be observed.

In addition to the above signs, prints from a homemade cliché are characterized by a mirror image of individual letters, the absence of some elements of printed characters.

When wet copying an authentic print, it is reprinted onto the document being forged.

The main sign of such a forgery is an inverted (mirror) image of the print. To avoid the mirror image, they resort to intermediate recopying onto some sticky material (egg white, photo paper).

The imprint on the document in this case corresponds to the original, but it has a reduced color intensity (looks pale), microparticles of the intermediate cliche material and altered luminescence of the paper in ultraviolet rays can be found around it.

More skilled methods of counterfeiting imprints or the seals and stamps themselves are less common.

To identify a counterfeit, a comparative study of them with the genuine seal and the imprints from it is necessary.

Samples of imprints for comparative study are obtained on sheets of clean paper before and after cleaning the seal (stamp) with varying degrees of pressure.

To establish the fact that any changes have been made to the text of the document, a technical and forensic examination is carried out.

The questions to be answered include the presence of signs of erasure, etching, additions, corrections to text, replacement of photographs or sheets, the method of forging a signature, seal or stamp, which specific genuine signature the forged signature was copied from, the method of making (industrial or artisanal) the seal (stamp) whose imprint was placed on the document, the identity or difference of the seal whose imprints were placed on the document under examination and on sheets — samples for comparison, etc.

N 3. Examination of typewritten texts

Due to the widespread use of typewriters, examination of typewritten documents in forensic practice is quite common.

Based on typewritten texts, if there is a sufficient volume of them, it is ultimately possible to establish the author (from written speech) and the executor of the document (from topographic and dactylographic features).

The solution of this main task is usually preceded by the identification of the typewriter on which the text was printed.

The search and identification of the typewriter is carried out according to its general and specific features displayed in the text.

General features of a typewriter are the features of its technical data. They are determined by the design of the mechanism and are grouped for machines of the same system (Optima, Olympia, Erika, Yatran, etc.).

Common features include: typewriter pitch (carriage) — the distance between the vertical axes of two adjacent letters; intervals between lines; keyboard type; font brand.

Typewriter pitch — a constant value that does not depend on which key (letter, punctuation mark, free stroke) is pressed. Different typewriter systems have a pitch from 2.2 to 3 mm.

Some typewriter systems differ in pitch only in hundredths of a millimeter.

The pitch measurement is done as follows: the distance in the line between the same elements of two identical letters located at a certain distance is measured, which is divided by the number of steps with an accuracy of hundredths of a millimeter.

The result obtained will be the pitch value.

For credibility, the measurement is repeated several times in different lines and between different elements of identical letters.

Line spacing is the distance between the lower (or upper) ends of identical letters in two consecutive lines.

Depending on the typewriter design and the spacing mechanism installed, the spacing can be single, one and a half, double, triple or more.

The single spacing of most typewriter systems is 4.23 mm, and only some systems have specific dimensions (Leningrad — 4.00, Urania — 4.50, Remington — 4.70, Royal — 4.80 mm).

The keyboard type is determined by the number of printed characters in the printing mechanism.

The keyboard can be full (with 92 printed characters in upper and lower case) and abbreviated (with 88 or 84 characters).

The difference in the number of characters occurs due to the presence of additional parentheses, fractional numbers, the digits «3» and «O» in the full keyboard.

However, it is possible to determine the keyboard type from the text only in cases where it contains these additional characters or there is a need for them.

Typewriters of even the same system can be equipped with fonts of different brands, differing in the size and design of the characters.

In addition to the difference in the overall height and width of the characters (depending on this, fonts are large, medium and small), printed characters of fonts of different brands can differ in the size ratios of individual elements.

On the other hand, typewriters of different systems can be equipped with fonts of the same brand. The font brand is applied to the type block between the upper and lower case characters. It is designated by numbers, letters, symbols, their combinations (for example, «100», «2Р22», «+», etc.).

Its name in the text can be determined by comparing the dimensional data and the drawing of the characters in it with samples of font impressions of famous brands.

Common features in typewritten text are used to determine the type (portable, office, mechanical, electric) and system of the typewriter.

Defining a system, however, often presents significant difficulties, since typewriters of different systems may have some similar characteristics.

Special features of a typewriter are the features of a specific typewriter.

These may be defects in the typewriter mechanism and defects in the font.

Defects in the mechanism are reflected in the text in the form of deviations in the impressions of letters to the right, left, up, down, vertical displacements of characters along the slope, uneven coloring of parts of the impressions.

These defects arise as a result of bending of letter levers, incorrect soldering of the type block onto them, etc.

Font defects arise during the operation of the typewriter in the form of deformation of individual characters (lack of a cutoff, bending of an element, etc.). A set of stable defects of the typewriter mechanism and font that repeat throughout the text makes it possible to identify the specific typewriter on which the text under study was printed.

For a comparative study to identify a typewriter, samples of typewriting from the typewriter being tested are selected from approximately the same period as the document being tested.

In addition, experimental samples are printed on the typewriter being tested before and after cleaning the font.

The texts of the samples must be of sufficient volume to test the stability of the features and must contain the characters present in the document being tested.

It is also recommended to print all upper and lower case characters on a sheet of paper, with or without tape.

The order to appoint an expert or the certificate attached to it must provide the expert with information about the time and nature of the repair of the machine being tested.

The following questions may be put to the examination for resolution: what is the typewriter system on which the text of the document was printed; was the text of the document printed on a typewriter, the typescript samples of which were presented for examination: was the text of the document printed on one or different typewriters; does the document contain signs of additional printing of individual words, letters, symbols after the main text was completed; was the text printed by the person being examined.

Recently, typewriters with replaceable font carriers, which are a cylindrical head with printing characters applied to it, or font carriers of the «daisy» type, have become widely used. Each typewriter is supplied with several such font carriers with fonts of different sizes and designs.

In typewritten texts printed on typewriters with replaceable font carriers, the most persistent defects of the font from a specific head.

General features of the machine and defects of the mechanism have less identification significance, since they are «joined» by defects of the font carrier, which is replaceable and replaceable.

Nevertheless, identification of such a machine by the features of the font is quite possible.

The greatest difficulty is the examination of documents printed on needle and other alphanumeric printing devices (ADP) of computers.

N 4. Examination of printed products

A wide variety of printing and duplicating equipment is used to produce and reproduce documents.

Many official documents and business papers are made on special forms.

During the investigation, it is sometimes necessary to establish the type and variety of the printing and duplicating equipment used to produce the document and to identify a specific machine, machine, apparatus, or printing form.

Printing and duplicating equipment used to produce printed products is a combination of technical printing equipment and home-made printing devices.

The main methods of printing are letterpress, flat press, and intaglio printing.

The printing elements in letterpress printing protrude above the blank elements, and the paint from them is transferred to the paper.

The printing form of letterpress printing is made by hand or machine typography, etching a zinc cliche.

Signs of letterpress printing are protruding traces from the pressure of the printing elements on the paper on the back of the document, squeezing out the dye from under the printing elements (uneven edges of the strokes when examined under a microscope).

When printing from a zinc cliche, there is a lack, thinning, breaks in individual thin elements of letters (pictures), smoothing of sharp angles between strokes due to etching during the manufacturing of the printing plate.

In a printing plate of flat printing (offset, lithography, phototype), the printing and non-printing elements are in the same plane, so there are no traces of pressure from the printing plate on the paper, the paint in the strokes is distributed evenly, without extrusion, their graphic elements have uneven edges.

The printing form of intaglio printing (metallography) has recessed printing elements into which paint is rolled. The strokes on the paper are printed with even edges, with the most prominent relief of the paint in their middle part. In handicraft production, the form of intaglio printing is rarely encountered.

For fast and technically simple reproduction of materials, documents in relatively small print runs, the means of so-called operational printing are used.

These methods include: offset printing on small-format machines such as a rotaprint, screen printing (rotator), and electrography (xerox).

When printing on a rotaprint, the printing plate is made on thin aluminum foil or special paper onto which text and images are applied.

After chemical treatment, the plate is fixed on a cylinder, from which the image is transferred to the paper.

The features of a rotaprint are common to flat printing.

A rotator is a device for duplicating documents by printing using a stencil made on a typewriter (or with a special pen by hand) on wax paper (wax) or a special film.

The printing form is placed on a cylinder moistened with paint.

The paint penetrates the paper through the areas of the letterform (damage to the wax coating of the film).

Common signs of printing on a rotator are the superficial location of the dye, traces of set-off on the back of the print, luminescence in ultraviolet rays of oil halos around the printed characters.

Electrography is a process of obtaining a photographic image based on visualization (development of a latent electrical image formed on a photoconductive layer of a dielectric or high-resistance semiconductor (selenium or zinc oxide) applied to an aluminum plate.

Under the influence of light when an original is exposed to it, the resistance of the layer decreases in illuminated areas, which leads to leakage of static electricity charges applied to its surface.

The electrical charges remaining after exposure in places corresponding to the text (not exposed to light) form a latent electrical image that absorbs a special electrographic (with an opposite charge) pigment powder.

The image from the printed form obtained in this way is transferred upon contact to the paper. The image is fixed on the paper by heating or melting the powder in volatile solvent vapors (benzene, toluene, acetone).

The use of electrography is determined by the presence of relief of the colorful powder coating of the image, the background on the blank areas and the edge effect of the original.

Recently, color copiers have appeared.

For criminal purposes, they are used in the production of copies of multi-color originals, for example, in the production of counterfeit 50-thousand (and possibly other) banknotes of the 1993 model.

Counterfeit money is recognized by the quality of the paper, the absence of watermarks and peeling paint at the folds of the counterfeit banknote.

In addition, under magnification, a mismatch of the lines of the «waves» of the background grid can be observed.

When examining the form of a document produced using a printing and duplicating device, signs of counterfeiting can be detected.

A primitive, unskilled counterfeit can be established by the presence of grammatical errors in the text, signs of drawing printed characters.

However, it is often necessary to resort to comparison with genuine (indisputable) samples.

When comparatively examining forms, it is necessary to establish the correspondence (or difference) of the type and method of production (for example, from a typographic set and a zinc cliché), the size and design of the font, the arrangement of parts and details of the text, the presence of individual defects in the impressions of letters that are absent from the genuine form.

When examining and examining printed products, a systematic approach is necessary.

Forms are printed on paper with special printing ink, filled in on a typewriter or by hand, certified with signatures and impressions of seals and stamps.

All components of the document must be subjected to careful examination.

Printed characters are examined using magnifying glasses and microscopes, the relief of the pressure of the printing form is established in oblique light, differences in the arrangement of lines and words in the text are revealed when viewing forms superimposed on each other against the light, ultraviolet rays can cause different luminescence of paper and paint.

Documents that raise doubts about the authenticity of the forms used to produce them are sent for a technical and forensic examination, which may be asked the following questions: what method (type) of printing was used to produce the document form, whether the document under examination and the comparative form sample were printed from the same printing plate, whether the form under examination was produced from a printing plate (typeset, cliché) seized from the suspect; whether the paper, dyes, glue and other materials used to produce the document under examination and the samples presented for comparison are uniform.

N 5. Restoring the Contents of Damaged Documents

Documents may be subject to accidental or intentional damage.

Reading their text may be difficult due to coating with foreign dye, discoloration under the influence of sunlight, mechanical or thermal damage to the document material.

The choice of method for identifying filled-in and crossed-out texts depends on what dye the text was written with and what dye it was filled with.

If the text was written with a dye containing carbon (a simple graphite pencil, black ink, typewriting ribbon, carbon paper, printing ink, special ink) and filled with aniline dye, its restoration is possible in infrared rays.

Visual observation is carried out through an electron-optical converter, and photography on infrared photographic material is possible.

If the dyes are homogeneous in composition but differ in color, color separation photography with light filters can have a positive effect.

If the dyes are the same in color but different in composition, they resort to ultraviolet examination (difference in luminescence), to the diffusion-copying method based on the difference in the solubility of the dyes, to identifying relief traces of text on the back of the document, mechanical and chemical weakening (removal, dissolution, bleaching) of the stain covering the text.

Long-term exposure of the document to the sun under bright or artificial lighting leads to significant weakening of the text, up to the point of being impossible to read, as well as yellowing of the paper, which, in turn, further weakens the contrast between the text and the background.

Restoration of such faded text is carried out by contrasting, color-separating photography, using red and infrared luminescence.

The selection of a filter for color separation is made according to the color circle, the opposite colors of which are complementary to each other.

To enhance color when photographing, a filter of the same color is selected, to weaken it — a filter of the complementary color.

Thus, if you are restoring faded (faded) text made with blue ink on yellow-gray paper, a yellow filter will simultaneously enhance the weak blue strokes and weaken the yellow background color.

During the inspection of the crime scene, search, torn and burned documents may be found.

For the investigation of the case, it is sometimes important to restore their contents.

Torn documents are first sorted by the physical properties of the paper: color, density, typographic graphite, etc., by the substance and color of the text strokes.

Then the scraps of paper are laid out on the glass along the tear lines: first the scraps with even edge trimming, which make up the frame of the document, then the scraps that fill the inner space, selected along the tear and fold lines, strokes and text.

This document is covered from above with another glass of the same size, the glass and edged with adhesive tape.

Removing and restoring burned documents presents significant difficulties.

Burnt documents can have varying degrees of destruction: charring or incineration.

Incineration most often damages the integrity of the document paper, which makes it impossible to read its text.

When charred, the integrity of the paper is fully or partially preserved.

The charred document is removed with caution.

A cardboard or metal plate is placed under the remains of the burnt document, together with which they are placed in a box with cotton wool for transportation.

If necessary, the document can be pre-moistened through a spray bottle with water, a 15% solution of glycerin in water, or synthetic resins.

In order to restore the text of a burned document in laboratory conditions, it is straightened on a glass plate.

The ability to read the text depends on the chemical composition and physical properties of the paper and the dye of the strokes. Sometimes the text is visible visually as gray or colored strokes on a dark background.

The observed picture can be enhanced by contrast photography, ultraviolet and infrared photography. If these methods do not give a positive result, the incineration method can be used.

Its essence lies in the fact that the charred document is placed between two heat-resistant glasses edged with liquid glass and exposed to high temperature. Text strokes may be visible on the gray background of the document incinerated in this way.

CHAPTER XIV FORENSIC EXAMINATION OF WRITING

N 1. Scientific foundations of forensic examination of writing

Writing is one of the means of communication and one of the ways of recording speech.

The defining features of writing, in contrast to oral speech and other methods of recording (on magnetic tape, for example), are fixing on paper or other material and transmitting information, the content of speech by means of symbols, signs, letters.

Writing has two sides: semantic (written speech) and technical or graphic (graphics of execution — handwriting).

Written speech is the content of a document (conceptual content) and the linguistic means by which it is expressed.

Handwriting is a reflection on paper of the system of movements when making written signs.

When studying writing, the entire complex of characteristics of the handwritten text is analyzed, that is, both the semantic and graphic side, although various tasks are solved: the author of the document is established by written speech, and its executor is established by handwriting.

The possibility of establishing the author and performer of a handwritten document is based on the individuality (uniqueness) and constancy (stability) of the written-speech and graphic skills of each writer.

The formation and development of these skills and the external manifestation of the identification features of writing based on them occurs in accordance with the psychophysiological doctrine of higher nervous activity of man.

Writing skills are formed under the influence of the language environment, training, production practice, including writing, and the characteristics of the physical and mental personality traits of an individual.

The stability of the manifestation of writing skills is largely influenced by the depth of fixation (automation) of the stereotype in the higher nervous system.

The more pronounced this depth of fixation, the more difficult it is to rebuild the skill, and vice versa, the weaker the stereotype (or it has not yet been fully formed), the easier it is to change the skill actions fixed by it.

The automatism of writing is manifested as long as it is performed under «normal» conditions in which the stereotype was formed.

A sharp one-time change in conditions (the target setting of writing, physical or mental overload, deliberate distortion of written speech or handwriting) leads to the cessation or significant weakening of the automatism of writing, to its execution under increased control of consciousness.

However, due to the short-term nature of the new conditions, the previously established manner of writing is not destroyed and the established neural connections are only temporarily suppressed.

Upon returning to the original («normal») conditions (writing without artificial distortion), the automation of the skill is completely restored.

Scientific provisions on the superposition of new neural connections on old ones, long-term preservation and the possibility of regeneration of the latter are of practical importance in forensic examination of writing.

The phenomenon of preserving an old stereotype manifests itself even in attempts to deliberately distort the features of written speech and handwriting.

Whatever method of disguising individual writing is used, the individual skills, reinforced by the developed stereotype, are preserved, and some of them are reflected in the distorted writing.

The individuality and consistency of manifestations in writing of the features of written speech and graphic skills allows using writing for forensic purposes — identifying the identity of the author and executor of the document.

N 2. Identification features of writing

In the process of studying writing, written speech, topography of writing and handwriting are studied. Identification features of writing are the features of the individual's written speech and graphic skills that are manifested in these elements.

Written speech.

In social, industrial, scientific and other activities, written speech carries various informational loads. By means of it, messages about facts, events, phenomena, concepts, ideas are recorded and transmitted, that is, a certain meaning, a specific content of thoughts.

At the same time, like any social phenomenon, written speech has its own form, in which its content is clothed, linguistic means, materializing the thoughts contained in it in the form of vocabulary used in certain syntactic constructions, to one degree or another corresponding to the norms of the literary language.

The basis of forensic examination of written speech is the determination of the characteristics of written speech skills.

Due to the reflection of conditioned reflex connections formed in the central nervous system, these skill characteristics are formed into a set that individualizes each person and can be used as identification features for the purpose of establishing the author of the document under study.

These features may appear as conformity to the norms within which they were formed, as separate stable deviations from the accepted norms, which are a consequence of weak development or absence of the skill in certain norms.

The identification features of written speech are grammatical, lexical and stylistic features of writing. In practice, however, the analysis of the features of written speech is preceded by familiarization with the content of the document.

The content of the document is not a feature of written speech, but the written speech itself, the meaning of the information presented.

Content does not have such a clear individuality as the linguistic means by which it is expressed.

At the same time, the content of the document may contain factual information that will be useful in conducting operational investigative activities.

When familiarizing oneself with the content, the following is analyzed:

a) the topic (the main meaning of the statement) and the ideological focus of the document;

b) factual information known to the author, references to sources and materials used;

c) the author's references to himself, giving some idea of his personality.

The grammatical features of language are manifested in the practice of applying the rules of spelling, syntax and punctuation.

The grammatical structure of a language is acquired gradually from early childhood through imitation of the speech of adults, studying standard grammar at school and self-education (reading literature). However, under the influence of everyday speech, which is not always correct, as well as due to partial changes made from time to time to the rules of spelling in order to streamline and simplify them, persistent deviations from modern grammatical norms are often formed in writing.

Lexical features — a set of linguistic means characteristic of the writer and the features of their use to express thoughts on paper.

Such linguistic means are vocabulary, phraseology and figurative and expressive means.

Vocabulary is considered as a vocabulary, a set of words actively used by the author.

As a general characteristic, the vocabulary of the author of the document under study can be defined as poor or rich.

At the same time, some features have been identified in it that may have the significance of identification features.

Such features are:

— obsolete words that have gone out of modern active literary use (archaisms);

— new words that have relatively recently entered the language of science, technology and other areas of communication (neologisms);

— words, the use of which is typical for people united by the nature of their activity, profession (professionalisms);

— words from the secret, «classified» jargon of certain social groups;

— words typical for residents of a certain territorial unit (dialectisms).

Phraseology — a set of stable combinations of words denoting something uniform in meaning.

The nature of phraseological units allows us to evaluate mainly the conditions of upbringing and the level of education of the writer.

Thus, units like «headlong», «fishing in troubled waters», «dancing to someone else's tune», etc. can be considered acceptable for any Russian person, and units like «pillars of Hercules», «swan song», «Sisyphean labor» are typical for people who have received a broad education and are well-read.

Figurative and expressive means are expressions used in a figurative sense (metaphor, irony, allegory, hyperbole, comparison) and so-called stylistic figures (gradation, antithesis, rhetorical questions and other speech devices).

Figurative and expressive means are introduced to enhance the effectiveness of speech, to give it imagery and strength.

By creating a memorable image, they deepen the understanding of the main, the most important thing in the events described.

Stylistic features— the author's characteristic manner of presenting thoughts, consisting of constructing individual sentences and the text as a whole, selecting vocabulary, using figurative and expressive means of language in accordance with the functional purpose of speech, the function of language in a particular sphere of human activity.

Among the functional (genre) styles, there are scientific, journalistic (newspaper and magazine), official-documentary (office), industrial-technical, artistic-fictional and epistolary (everyday) styles, the specificity of each of which is determined by the document's purpose, the author's skill in expressing thoughts, corresponding to his individual emotional, mental, professional and other habits and inclinations.

The process of establishing the author of a document includes non-identification studies at the first stage — determining its supposed appearance and identification studies at the second stage.

Presumed judgments about the author may be made regarding gender, nationality, education, age, profession (specialty), place of work and residence and other data characterizing him/her and used in conducting operational-search activities.

Identification of the author by written speech is carried out on the basis of a comparative analysis of the totality of grammatical, lexical and stylistic features of the manifestation of written and speech skills of writing in the documents under study.

Letter topography.

Letter topography is the placement of text on a sheet of paper.

Topography identification features are the features of such placement that are familiar to a given writer. Topographic features are:
1. Margins are the indents from the edge of the sheet of paper on the right, left, top, bottom.
Assessed from the point of view of presence (or absence), size (large, medium, small), shape (uniform, tapering, widening downwards).
1. Paragraphs are parts of the text with a complete thought.
The presence or absence of highlighting and the method of highlighting (indents of a new line, increased spacing between paragraphs, a combination of an indent of a new line and increased spacing, etc.) are noted. A new line is assessed by the size of its indent from the beginning line.
1. The arrangement of lines in relation to the horizontal on unlined paper (horizontal, rising, falling), by shape (straight, convex upward, concave downward) or in relation to the topographic graphite lines on lined paper (above the lines, on the lines, without observing the graphite lines).
2. Word hyphenation.
Some writers do not hyphenate, they «drop» a line in advance and move to the next one, compress the letters or bend the end of a line upward or downward.

If there are hyphens, hyphenation marks can be made in the form of one or two dashes, their size can be large or small, their shape — straight, convex, concave, their location in relation to the line — in the middle or with an upward or downward shift up to the location below the line line, in relation to the horizontal — horizontal, rising or falling.
1. Word emphasis — emphasis on individual words or a group of words.
Methods of emphasis: underlining with one or two dashes, straight, wavy, solid, dotted lines; increasing the size of letters: writing in a spaced style, in capital letters, etc.
1. Inserting missing words and letters.
Methods of insertion can be varied: using proofreading marks, «check marks», etc.
1. Position of address (addressee), signature, date, page numbers.
The specified requisites can be arranged differently in relation to the sheet of paper and the main text, line, horizontal. In addition to the arrangement, attention is paid to the method of their execution, especially page numbers and dates.

Topographic features of writing are used to identify the author and performer in combination with both the features of written speech and the features of handwriting in a handwritten document.

Their value lies in the fact that their execution most often occurs automatically, without conscious control, so they can be preserved even with artificial masking (distortion) of the letter.

Handwriting.

Handwriting is the graphic style of writing, determined by a developed system of hand movements.

The characteristics of such movements, reflecting the state of the physiology and psyche of the individual, constitute the identification features of handwriting.

Handwriting features are divided into general and specific.

General features characterize handwriting as a whole.

General features are:
1. Handwriting development is the technical adaptability of handwriting to fast, fluent writing.
The degree of development depends on the degree of automation, development of hand movements.

Handwritings according to this feature can be developed (well developed), medium and low development.

In handwriting of high development, on the one hand, there is a multivariance (variability) of letters depending on their place in the word and combinations with other letters, on the other hand — the same type of execution of different letters.
1. General type of handwriting.
According to this feature, handwriting can be simple (close to «student»), simplified and complicated (ornate).

Simplified handwriting is, as a rule, well-developed («fast»), difficult to read handwriting with simplified writing of letters, connections between them.

Complications (ornateness) are most often introduced into the superscript and subscript elements of letters for their decoration.
1. General direction of movements in handwriting.
Most Russian handwritings are left-circular (with counter-clockwise movement). Less common are right-circular handwritings and handwritings with angular connections of letter elements.
1. Handwriting size.
Depending on the height of the lowercase letter elements, handwritings can be small (up to 2 mm), medium-sized (from 2 to 5 mm) and large (5 mm and more).
1. Handwriting tilt.
Russian handwritings are mostly right-slanted (with an angle of 55-70 degrees), less common are straight and left-slanted.
1. Handwriting acceleration is the ratio of the height of two-stroke lowercase letters to their width and the intervals between letters.
Depending on this ratio, handwriting can be sweeping, medium in acceleration, and compressed.
1. The degree of coherence (tension) of handwriting.
Determined by the number of letters written coherently, without lifting the writing instrument from the paper.

If each letter is written separately, without connection with other letters or no more than two letters are connected, the handwriting is of average coherence: five letters or more — coherent (tense).

General features of handwriting are features of group significance.

They determine the similarity or difference of handwriting in the document being examined and the samples being compared and are used in the initial selection of material for subsequent examination of it by specific features.

Private handwriting features are the features of the execution of individual written characters from the point of view of their deviation from the norms of school typical copybooks and general characteristics of handwriting.

Such deviations can take place in any strokes (elements) of letters: initial (preliminary) and final, main and connecting, ovals and semi-ovals, superscripts and subscripts, executed by adductor or deflector, left-circular or right-circular movement, connected to each other with the formation of a loop, angularity, by adjoining.

The identification significance, the value of a particular handwriting feature depends on the frequency of its occurrence in the handwriting of other persons writing in the language of the document being examined.

The lower the frequency of occurrence, the higher the value of the feature in identifying the performer.

Handwriting studies are conducted for the purpose of making a tentative judgment about certain socio-demographic characteristics of the performer of a handwritten document (gender, age, professional affiliation), his mental state (diseases and disorders) and identification.

The gender, age, and profession of the performer can be indicated by the characteristics of the classification relationship of the handwriting under study with the handwriting of a certain socio-demographic group of writers, identified using private methods.

Thus, the differentiation of manuscripts into male and female is made by multiplying the coefficients of static probability of features and comparing them with the quantitative indicator — one. If the resulting work is greater than one — the manuscript was most likely written by a man, if it is less than one — by a woman.

In the method for establishing the age of the performer, the correlation coefficients are summed up for three age groups (schoolchildren, adults up to 24 years old, from 25 years old) and the probabilities of belonging of each of the three calculated values to the distributions in these groups are determined.

The group is considered established if the probability exceeds 0.90.

Mental state can be determined by impaired coordination of movements and some other signs that are a consequence of some mental disorders.

The presence or absence of the identity of the executor of a handwritten document is established as a result of a comparative study of the complexes of handwriting features and the topography of writing in the document under study and samples, the uniqueness of which is assessed by the expert not only subjectively, but also based on the use of mathematical data on the identification significance of individual features and the complex as a whole.

In addition to establishing the executor of a handwritten document, handwriting features are also used in the study of signatures.

In this case, signatures forged by drawing or imitation (without the use of technical means) can reveal not only signs of inconsistency with the authentic signatures of the persons on whose behalf they were made, but also signs of the handwriting of the person who committed the forgery.

Part 1 of the book «Forensic Science»
Part 2 of the book «Forensic Science»
Part 3 of the book «Forensic Science»

Навигация по записям

On the issue of categorizing objects from the standpoint of security.
Checking incoming correspondence for the presence of explosive devices and radioactive substances.

Forensic Science Textbook for Universities. Part 1. Read online.

Отопление и вентиляция коттеджей.

Камера на базе искусственного интеллекта с распознаванием типа, марки, модели и цвета автомобиля

Нанотехнологии создают легкие костюмы для пожарных

ГОРОСКОП НА СЕГОДНЯ ДЛЯ ВСЕХ ЗНАКОВ